Publications

A-Z Title List: F

Factor Intensity and the Changing Commodity Composition of U.S. Agricultural Trade - By order only: This reports uses the 1977 and 1982 national Input-Output accounts of the U.S. economy to examine factor intensities and associated patterns of U.S. agricultural trade. U.S. agricultural exports were found to be more land-intensive than U.S. agricultural imports.
ERSAER683 20 pp May 1, 1994
Factors Affecting Carrot Consumption in the United States: Carrots are one of the most popular vegetables in the United States and fresh-market carrot consumption has been increasing over the past few decades. Using a combination of ACNielsen Homescan panel data and USDA's Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals, this article examines where and how much fresh and processed carrots are eaten and links this consumption to various economic, social, and demographic characteristics of consumers. The analysis indicates that per capita carrot consumption is greatest in the East and Central regions of the country. About 80 percent of fresh-market carrots are purchased at retail and consumed at home, with the majority consisting of fresh-cut (including baby) carrots.
VGS-31901 21 pp March 6, 2007
Factors Affecting Nutrient Intake of the Elderly: The rapid expansion of the population age 60 and older has a number of economic implications. The people in this group, about 18 percent of the population, account for about 30 percent of all health care expenditures. They use hospitals at nearly three times the rate of younger persons, average seven to eight medical visits per year, and occupy the majority of nursing residence beds. Providing information on the relationship of socio-economic and other factors to nutrient intake is basic to improving the health and well-being of the elderly. This exploratory investigation provides estimates of the effects of selected characteristics of the household and its constituents on individual nutrient consumption of elderly heads of households. Formal education was positively related to nutrient consumption. The elderly who live in households with income below 130 percent of the poverty level tended to have lower nutrient intakes than those elderly in households with higher incomes. Blacks, urbanites, and Southerners generally consumed less of the selected nutrients. Neither participation in the Food Stamp Program nor receipt of surplus foods was a significant factor in nutrient intake of elderly individuals. Possible nutrition interventions focus on targeted audiences and programs.
ERSAER769 20 pp October 21, 1998
Factors Affecting Returns to Labor and Management on U.S. Dairy Farms: An ERS Elsewhere file of a journal article published in Agricultural Finance Review.
eejs0213 March 1, 2002
Factors Affecting Spinach Consumption in the United States: U.S. fresh-market spinach consumption has been increasing over the past few decades. Basic knowledge of the distribution of spinach consumption across different market channels, geographic regions, and population groups has been very limited in the past. Using data from USDA's 1994-96 and 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals, this article examines the consumption distribution of fresh-market and processed spinach in the United States. The analysis indicates that per capita spinach consumption is greatest in the Northeast and West. About 80 percent of fresh-market spinach is purchased at retail and consumed at home, while 91 percent of processed spinach is consumed at home. Per capita spinach use is strongest among Asians, highest among women 40 and older, and weakest among teenage girls.
ERSVGS-300-01 15 pp January 21, 2004
Factors Affecting the Macronutrient Intake of U.S. Adults: This study characterizes factors associated with macronutrient excess or inadequacy among U.S. adults.
ERSTB1901 45 pp April 28, 2003
Factors Affecting the Profitability of Limited-Resource and Other Small Farms: Small farms as defined by the National Commission on Small Farms constitute 90 percent of U.S. farms, contain 67 percent of farm land, and hold 77 percent of farm sector net worth. They also contribute significantly to rural economies as purchasers of inputs and supplies and as preservers of the rural landscape. Under the 1996 Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act (FAIR, 1996) farmers face greater risk of income volatility because of the likelihood of increased volatility in the prices they receive. An understanding of which farm and operator characteristics influence profitability would be useful to operators of limited-resource farms and other small farms who wish to make changes in their operations in order to increase profit.
EEJS0009 January 1, 1999
Factors Affecting U.S. Beef Consumption: Beef is a highly consumed meat in the United States, averaging 67 pounds per person per year. Findings based on the 1994-96 and 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals (CSFII) indicate that most beef was eaten at home. Annual beef consumption per person was highest in the Midwest (73 pounds), followed by the South and West (65 pounds each), and the Northeast (63 pounds). Rural consumers ate more beef (75 pounds) than did urban and suburban consumers (66 and 63 pounds). Beef consumption also varies by race and ethnicity. Blacks ate 77 pounds of beef per person per year, followed by 69 pounds by Hispanics, 65 pounds by Whites, and 62 pounds by other races. Low-income consumers tend to eat more beef than consumers in other income households.
ERSLDPM13502 25 pp October 7, 2005
Factors Affecting U.S. Mushroom Consumption: U.S. mushroom consumption has been increasing over the past several decades. Basic knowledge of the distribution of mushroom consumption across different market channels, geographic regions, and population groups has been very limited in the past. Using data from USDA's 1994-96 and 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals, this article examines the consumption distribution of fresh-market and processed mushrooms in the United States. The analysis indicates that per capita mushroom consumption is greatest in the West and Midwest. A little more than half of fresh-market mushrooms are purchased at retail and consumed at home, while three-fourths of processed mushrooms are consumed at home. Per capita mushroom use is highest among men and women aged 20-39, and weakest for children under the age of 12.
ERSVGS295-01 March 31, 2003
Factors Affecting U.S. Pork Consumption: Pork ranks third in annual U.S. meat consumption, behind beef and chicken, averaging 51 pounds per person. The Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals (CSFII) indicates that most pork is consumed at home. Pork consumption is highest in the Midwest, followed by the South, the Northeast, and the West. Rural consumers eat more pork than urban/suburban consumers. Pork consumption varies by race and ethnicity. Higher income consumers tend to consume less pork. Everything else remaining constant, demographic data in the CSFII suggests future declines in per capita pork consumption as the share of Hispanics and the elderly in the population rises because those two groups eat less pork than the national average. However, total U.S. pork consumption will grow because of an expansion of the U.S. population.
ERSLDPM13001 18 pp May 13, 2005
Factors Associated With Iron Status Among WIC Infants and Toddlers in Rural West Virginia: Iron deficiency severe enough to cause anemia may affect children’s ability to grow and learn and, consequently, their lifelong productivity and earnings. This study examined the iron status of infants and toddlers ages 6-24 months with a prevalence of anemia of at least 10 percent participating in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) in West Virginia counties. Blood screening performed especially for this study found that 12 of the 57 infants and toddlers (21 percent) were iron deficient, considerably more than the 4 of 49 (8 percent) with anemia. Because the screening methods routinely performed outside of the study are unable to detect iron deficiency before it progresses to anemia, primary prevention of iron deficiency is the only option that may be universally applied. Expert feeding recommendations—such as introducing iron-rich complementary foods after 6 months of age and limiting consumption of milk among children ages 12-24 months to no more than 24 ounces—are useful for promoting adequate intake of readily-available iron and may help prevent iron deficiency.
Disclaimer: This study was conducted by West Virginia University under research grant number 43-3AEM-0-80073 with the Economic Research Service. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of ERS or USDA.

CCR-35 50 pp December 19, 2007
Factors Associated With School Meal Participation and the Relationship Between Different Participation Measures: This study investigated factors that influence students’ participation in the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) and School Breakfast Program (SBP). The analysis used recently collected data on a large, nationally representative sample of students certified for free and reduced-price meals during the 2005–06 school year. Results show that, although eligible students are very likely to participate in the programs (i.e. pick up the meal offered that day), eligible elementary school students are more likely to participate than are middle or high school students. Likewise, students who like the taste of the meals are more likely to participate than are students who do not like the taste. In addition, if students now eligible for reduced-price lunches were instead given free lunches, they would participate more than they do now. The same was not strictly the case, however, for breakfast. Finally, the study suggests that analysts should use caution in relying on parents’ reports of a student’s participation to estimate yearly school meal participation. Parental reports of the previous day’s or previous week’s participation tend to overstate participation, which results in higher reported annual participation rates than is true according to administrative data.
Disclaimer: This study was conducted by Mathematica Policy Research, Inc., under Contract number 59-5000-7-0114. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of ERS or USDA.

CCR-53 171 pp June 18, 2009
Factors Behind the Rise in Global Rice Prices in 2008: Global rice prices rose to record highs in the spring of 2008, with trading prices tripling from November 2007 to late April 2008. The price increase was not due to crop failure or a particularly tight global rice supply situation. Instead, trade restrictions by major suppliers, panic buying by several large importers, a weak dollar, and record oil prices were the immediate cause of the rise in rice prices. Because rice is critical to the diet of about half the world’s population, the rapid increase in global rice prices in late 2007 and early 2008 had a detrimental impact on those rice consumers’ well-being. Although rice prices have dropped more than 40 percent from their April 2008 highs, they remain well above pre-2007 levels.
RCS-09D-01 25 pp May 7, 2009
Factors Contributing to Earnings Success of Cash Grain Farms: With agriculture potentially becoming less dependent on federal subsidies, the possibility of increased variability of returns due to the vagaries of weather or the volatility of commodity prices is likely to have an impact on the sector. To be successful in their farming business, farmers will select strategies to improve farm production efficiency, risk management, and overall returns/profits. A better understanding of the characteristics that influence returns and/or profits would be useful to producers who wish to make changes in their farming operations in order to increase returns, and to policymakers who formulate policies designed to help farmers maintain stable incomes.
EEJS0011 December 1, 1999
Factors Contributing to the Recent Increase in U.S. Fertilizer Prices, 2002-08: U.S. prices of fertilizer nutrients began to rise steadily in 2002 and increased sharply to historic highs in 2008 due to the combined effects of a number of domestic and global long- and shortrun supply and demand factors. From 2007 to 2008, spring nitrogen prices increased by a third, phosphate prices nearly doubled, and potash prices doubled. The price spike in 2008 reflects low inventories at the beginning of 2008 combined with the inability of the U.S. fertilizer industry to quickly adjust to surging demand or sharp declines in international supply. Declining fertilizer demand, disruption in fall applications, increased fertilizer imports (July to August), and tightening credit markets for fertilizer purchases contributed to the decline of fertilizer prices in late 2008. The prospect for strong fertilizer demand in early 2009, high raw material costs for the manufacture of fertilizers, production cutbacks, and decreasing supplies from fertilizer imports, however, could put upward pressure on U.S. fertilizer prices in spring 2009.
AR-33 21 pp February 13, 2009
Factors Influencing ACRE Program Enrollment: Authorized by the 2008 Farm Act, the Average Crop Revenue Election (ACRE) program is the first revenue-based, income-support program that calculates payments using recent market prices and a producer’s actual plantings. The payments are triggered when a farm’s revenue and State revenue (price multiplied by yield per planted acre) fall below a calculated guarantee for a crop. By contrast, other income-support programs are based on legislated rates and support levels, computed using a farm’s base acres and payment yields. Had the ACRE program been available during crop years 1996-2008, this report shows that farmers would have benefited more from participating in 2002 Farm Act programs than in the hypothetical ACRE program. The report further suggests that, for 2009-12, producers of corn, soybeans, wheat, and rice are likely to benefit more from the ACRE program than from the price-based, income-support programs. Initial enrollment data suggest that factors aside from expected market prices and yields entered into the enrollment decision such as producer risk preferences and initial learning and negotiation costs. Data indicate that about 8 percent of farms with almost 13 percent of eligible base acres elected to participate in ACRE, which is less than might be expected given price and yield-based analysis alone.
ERR-84 43 pp December 29, 2009
Factors Shaping Expanding U.S. Red Meat Trade: U.S. imports and exports of red meats—beef, pork, lamb, and mutton—have expanded rapidly over the last several decades, linking livestock sectors of the United States to those of several major trading partners. Factors driving this trade growth include not only rising incomes, but also the preference of U.S. and foreign consumers for a greater variety of red meat cuts, facilitated by the expansion of free trade agreements. Changes in currency values, including the recent depreciation of the U.S. dollar against the currencies of key trading partners, have also been important influences in expanding trade in U.S. red meat products. Domestic production continues to provide the main share of beef and pork consumed in the United States, while the share of U.S. lamb consumption from imports has increased significantly. While the red meat (and poultry) markets have been punctuated by animal disease issues over the last few years, the integration of trade is expected to continue.
LDPM-17501 24 pp February 10, 2009
Family Child Care Home Participation in the CACFP - Effects of Reimbursement Tiering: A Report to Congress on the Family Child Care Homes Legislative Changes Study: The introduction of tiered reimbursement rates in 1997 reduced the number of family child care homes participating in the Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP) in 1998 and 1999. The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 mandated a tiered reimbursement structure designed to target benefits more narrowly to low-income children and called for a study of its effects on program participation and on meals offered to children. This report presents analyses focusing on how the revised reimbursement structure affected the number of family child care homes participating in the CACFP. By reducing participation incentives for child care homes that were not considered to be low-income ('Tier 2' homes), tiering reduced the total number of participating CACFP homes. Tiering had little or no discernible effect on the number of children participating in the program, the number of CACFP sponsors, or the nationwide number of licensed providers of child care.
02-002 65 pp April 5, 2002
Family Child Care Homes and the CACFP - Participation After Reimbursement Tiering (An Interim Report of the Family Child Care Homes Legislative Changes Study): The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 established a two-tier structure of meal reimbursement rates for family child care homes participating in USDA's Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP) and mandated a study of the effects of that change on program participation and state licensing of child care homes. Using administrative data, this interim report finds that participation in CACFP by child care homes dropped 6 percent and the number of sponsoring organizations that administer the participating child care homes dropped 2 percent between 1997 and 1998.
ERSFANRR3 64 pp October 31, 1999
Family Child Care Providers in the CACFP - Operational Effects of Reimbursement Tiering: A Report to Congress on the Family Child Care Homes Legislative Changes Study: Family child care providers who participate in the Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP) receive reimbursement for qualifying meals served to children in their care. The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 mandated a two-tiered reimbursement structure designed to target benefits more narrowly to low-income children and called for a study of its effects on program participants and on meals offered to children. Participating providers who receive the lower Tier 2 reimbursements tend to charge higher hourly fees and spend somewhat less on food, according to analyses controlling for provider's location and operating characteristics. The pattern of meals and snacks that providers offered was not altered by tiering, however.
02-004 86 pp April 5, 2002
The Farm Act's Regional Equity Provision: Impacts on Conservation Program Outcomes: The 2002 and 2008 Farm Acts increased funding for conservation programs that provide financial assistance to farmers to implement conservation practices on working farmland. Along with seeking cost-effective environmental benefits, these programs have a goal of spreading conservation funding equitably across States. The 2002 and 2008 Farm Acts strengthened this allocative goal by setting a minimum threshold for conservation funding for each State—one that exceeds historical funding for some States—for enrolling agricultural producers in specified conservation programs. This study uses conservation program data to examine evidence of the impacts of the Regional Equity provision of the 2002 Farm Act, and explores the tradeoffs that can occur among conservation program goals when legislation gives primacy to fund allocation. The study found that cross-State shifts in funding reduced the acres receiving conservation treatment for many resource problems, but increased the net economic benefits from treatments on some of them. Overall impacts on the types of producers enrolled were small.
ERR-98 51 pp June 11, 2010
Farm Household Well-Being: Comparing Consumption- and Income-Based Measures: Household economic well-being can be gauged by the financial resources (income/wealth) available to the household or by the standard of living enjoyed by household members (consumption). Based on responses to USDA's annual Agricultural Resource Management Survey (ARMS), a joint effort by the Economic Research Service (ERS) and the USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service, ERS has long published estimates of farm household income and wealth. This report presents, for the first time, estimates of consumption-based measures of well-being for farm households based on new questions in ARMS. The consumption measure provides a different perspective from income or wealth on farm households’ well-being relative to that of all U.S. households.
ERR-91 47pp February 12, 2010
Farm Payments: Decoupled Payments Increase Households' Well-Being, Not Production: This article analyzes the U.S. experience with decoupled farm payments -- those not tied to production or prices -- from 1996 to 2002. The payments, made under the Production Flexibility Contracts program, affected farm household well-being -- defined to encompass consumption, savings, investment, and labor/leisure choices.
February 20, 2003
Farm Poverty Lowest in U.S. History: In the 1930s, commodity programs could have reasonably been expected to boost rural economies and the well-being of farm families. More than three-fourths of all rural counties depended on agriculture as their primary source of income. There were 30.4 million people living and working on 6.3 million farms. By the turn of the 21st century, 6 million people lived and worked on 1.8 million active farms, representing 1 percent of total U.S. population. Only 20 percent of rural U.S. counties now depend on agriculture for more than 15 percent of earnings. Even in these farming counties, nonfarm sectors have been and continue to be major sources of employment. Compared with the circumstances of the Depression, contemporary farm policy is less significant for the rural sector, particularly for low-income farm households. Further progress in eradicating the effects of poverty on farm households depends on increasing farmers' use of the general social safety net as well as economic development and the generation of off-farm job opportunities.
September 1, 2005
Farm Programs, Natural Amenities, and Rural Development: Do farm program payments boost the vitality of rural communities? ERS research finds that natural amenities—temperate climate, a mix of forest and open space, lakes—are highly correlated with population and employment growth, and these amenities are relatively scarce in agricultural areas with substantial farm program payments.
February 1, 2005
Farm Resource Regions: ERS recently constructed a new set of regions depicting geographic specialization in production of U.S. farm commodities. ERS will use the new regions to display results of its analyses in a broad array of venues from briefings to publications, our web site, and journal articles. This pamphlet introduces the new ERS Farm Resource Regions, explains their origin and rationale, and serves as a reference for our clients.
ERSAIB760 6 pp September 12, 2000
Farm-Based Recreation: A Statistical Profile: Farm-based recreation provides an important niche market for farmers, but limited empirical information is available on the topic. Access to two USDA databases, the 2004 Agricultural Resource Management Survey (ARMS) and the 2000 National Survey on Recreation and the Environment, provided researchers with a deeper understanding of who operates farm-based recreation enterprises, such as hunting and fishing operations, horseback riding businesses, on-farm rodeos, and petting zoos. Regression analysis identified the importance of various farmer and farm characteristics, as well as local and regional factors associated with farmer operation of, and income derived from, farm-based recreation.
ERR-53 28 pp December 31, 2007
Farmer Bankruptcies and Farm Exits in the United States, 1899-2002: The report finds that bankruptcy has played only a small role in the overall decline in farm numbers over the last 70 years. Most of the decline in farm numbers occurred between the 1940s and 1970s, when bankruptcy filings were at relatively low levels. Farm numbers have even risen when bankruptcies have been relatively high or rising, such as during the early 1930s or early 1990s. Not all bankruptcies result in farm exits, and most farm exits involve other factors. Bankruptcies are only one phenomenon within a broader set of changing economic circumstances-including rising agricultural productivity and expanding off-farm opportunities-that influence the size and structure of the farm sector.
ERSAIB788 42 pp March 30, 2004
Farmers Balance Off-Farm Work and Technology Adoption: Off-farm income has risen steadily over recent decades. Small-farm households are more likely to devote time to off-farm employment than larger farms. New technologies enhance options for trading onfarm work for off-farm employment. Farm households with higher off-farm income are more likely to adopt farm technologies that economize on management time instead of those that are time intensive.
AER February 1, 2007
Farmers' Use of Marketing and Production Contracts: Contracts are an integral part of the production and marketing of selected livestock commodities, such as broilers, turkeys, eggs, and milk. Such crops as fruit, vegetables, and sugar beets and cane are mostly produced under contracts. In the past, farm receipts were assumed to be distributed across all farm families in proportion to their production. Today, contractors receive a large share of farm receipts, formerly assumed to go to the operator's family. Contractors typically bear a large share of production and price risk, and earn the majority of net income from the commodity's production. Farmers may benefit by being able to expand their operations more rapidly than otherwise possible--perhaps with less debt and fewer financial risks.
ERSAER747 32 pp December 1, 1996
Farmland Protection: The Role of Public Preferences for Rural Amenities: Investigates the relative importance of preserving different amenities conserved by farmland protection programs. Examines farmland protection program enabling legislation in the 48 contiguous States, and implementation of these programs in five Northeastern States.
ERSAER815 74 pp November 4, 2002
Farmland Retirement's Impact on Rural Growth: The Feature "Farmland Retirement's Impact on Rural Growth" addresses an unintended consequences of high levels of enrollment in the CRP, that of farmland retirement's impact of rural growth. To examine this issue, this article examines the local socioeconomic changes that accompanied CRP enrollment in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and discusses ERS analysis of the potential employment and output changes if all land currently enrolled in the program could be put to other uses, given the current distribution of land, prevailing commodity market conditions, and public policies.
November 3, 2004
Farmland Retirement's Impact on Rural Growth: The Feature “Farmland Retirement’s Impact on Rural Growth” addresses an unintended consequences of high levels of enrollment in the CRP, that of farmland retirement’s impact of rural growth. To examine this issue, this article examines the local socioeconomic changes that accompanied CRP enrollment in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and discusses ERS analysis of the potential employment and output changes if all land currently enrolled in the program could be put to other uses, given the current distribution of land, prevailing commodity market conditions, and public policies.
AER July 7, 2006
Feasibility and Accuracy of Record Linkage To Estimate Multiple Program Participation: This study investigated the feasibility of linking administrative data from multiple USDA food assistance and nutrition programs. To determine the potential for record linkage, Phase I of the study gathered information in 26 States on the characteristics and content of administrative databases for the Food Stamp Program (FSP), the Special Supplemental Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), and child nutrition programs. Phase II of the study collected and linked 2000-02 administrative data on FSP and WIC clients in Florida, Iowa, and Kentucky. Phase II estimates multiple program participation in FSP and WIC, describes the relative timing of participation across programs, and examines the individual and household characteristics associated with multiple program participation.
03008 November 26, 2004
Feasibility and Accuracy of Record Linkage To Estimate Multiple Program Participation: Volume I, Record Linkage Issues and Results of the Survey of Food Assistance Information Systems: Administrative data from USDA's food assistance and nutrition programs (FANPs) provide statistics on the number and characteristics of program participants. However, policymakers and researchers often want more information than these administrative data provide about participation in multiple programs or the characteristics of families who choose to participate in some, but not all, programs for which they are eligible. This study investigates the feasibility of linking administrative data across FANPs to provide statistics on multiple-program participation. This report presents the results of the first phase of the study. The results are based on the Survey of Food Assistance Information Systems, taken in 26 States from directors of the Food Stamp Program (FSP), the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), and Child Nutrition Programs. The survey collected information about the characteristics and content of FANP information systems. Findings indicate that FSP and WIC statewide information systems vary significantly in the number and types of client identifiers, extent of data verification, and rules for data retention and overwriting. The survey also found that participant data from the child nutrition programs are currently unavailable at the State-level except from a handful of States.
03-008-1 78 pp June 25, 2003
Feasibility and Accuracy of Record Linkage To Estimate Multiple Program Participation: Volume II, Survey of Food Assistance Information Systems—Survey Instruments: Administrative data from USDA's food assistance and nutrition programs (FANPs) provide statistics on the number and characteristics of program participants. However, policymakers and researchers often want more information than these administrative data provide about participation in multiple programs or the characteristics of families who choose to participate in some, but not all, programs for which they are eligible. This study investigates the feasibility of linking administrative data across FANPs to provide statistics on multiple-program participation. The first phase of the study included a Survey of Food Assistance Information Systems, taken in 26 States from directors of the Food Stamp Program (FSP), the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), and Child Nutrition Programs. The survey collected information about the characteristics and content of FANP information systems, including system architecture, participant identifiers, integration with other programs, and research uses of administrative data. This report includes the instruments for the survey.
03-008-2 50 pp June 25, 2003
Feasibility and Accuracy of Record Linkage To Estimate Multiple Program Participation: Volume III, Results of Record Linkage: This study investigated the feasibility of linking administrative data from multiple USDA food assistance and nutrition programs. This report contains findings from Phase II of the study, which collected and linked 2000-02 administrative data on clients of the Food Stamp Program (FSP) and the Special Supplemental Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) in Florida, Iowa, and Kentucky. The report finds that the percentage of FSP infants (children) with contemporaneous participation in WIC ranged from 84 to 94 percent (50 to 57 percent). Meanwhile, the percentage of WIC infants (children) with contemporaneous participation in FSP ranged from 22 to 38 percent (29 to 50 percent). Most FSP women who gave birth during the 3-year period participated in WIC for some period (83 percent in Florida and 91 percent in Iowa). Phase II also examined the relative timing of participation across programs and the individual and household characteristics associated with multiple program participation.
03-008-3 69 pp November 24, 2004
Federal Estate Taxes Affecting Fewer Farmers but the Future is Uncertain: The Federal estate tax affects relatively few estates and accounts for only a small share of total Federal tax receipts. Though special provisions have been enacted to limit the impact of the tax on farmers and small business owners, these groups are still more likely than the general public to owe Federal estate taxes. A larger share of farm estates could be subject to estate taxes if legislation enacted in 2001 is allowed to expire at the end of 2010.
AER May 15, 2009
Federal Tax Policies and Farm Households: Significant changes in Federal individual income and estate tax policies have occurred over the last 10 years. Analysis suggests that changes in Federal tax provisions affecting both individual and business income taxes have reduced average tax rates for all farm households, resulting in the lowest tax burden on farm income and investment in a decade. Similarly, an analysis of the changes to Federal estate tax policies suggests that increases in the value of property that can be transferred to the next generation free of the estate tax, combined with special provisions for farmers and other small businesses, have greatly reduced the number of farm estates subject to the tax and the amount owed. While nearly 10 percent of commercial farm estates could owe tax in 2009, only 1 to 2 percent of all farm estates are estimated to be subject to the Federal estate tax this year.
EIB-54 26 pp May 15, 2009
Federal Tax Policies and Low-Income Rural Households: The authors analyze the increasing use of refundable tax credits targeted to low- and moderate-income households in the Federal individual income tax and determine their implications for rural America. To identify rural and urban households, the analysis matches a zip code approximation of the 2006 Rural-Urban Commuting Area Codes with Internal Revenue Service Individual Income Tax zip code and related data. These data are then used to examine the impact of the recent expansions to income tax credit programs on affected households. The analysis finds that expansions to both the refundable and nonrefundable portions of the Earned Income and Child Tax credits have provided a major source of income support for low-income workers and their families. This is especially true in the South, where the rural poor are concentrated.
EIB-76 27 pp May 5, 2011
Feed Grains Backgrounder: The U.S. feed grain sector, largest of the major U.S. field crops, faces unprecedented demand conditions. The size and speed of the expanding use of corn by the ethanol industry is raising widespread issues throughout U.S. agriculture. Debate is ongoing over the use of grain for fuel instead of for food or feed and the adequacy of future grain supplies. Increased productivity (yield) and additional area from land planted to competing crops, land enrolled in conservation programs, or idled land is expected to provide an increased supply of feed grains. The outlook is for higher feed grain prices, in part, as a result of renewable energy policies and high energy prices, with feed grain prices rising above farm program support levels. During the ongoing farm policy debate, the U.S. feed grain sector faces uncertainty about the future level and type of government support.
FDS-07C01 58 pp March 30, 2007
Feed Outlook: Examines supply, use, prices, and trade for feed grains, including supply and demand prospects in major importing and exporting countries. Focuses on corn; also contains information on sorghum, barley, oats, and hay.
AER January 17, 2012
Feed Yearbook: Examines world and U.S. production, consumption, trade, stocks, and prices for feed grains (focusing on corn).
FDS May 30, 2008
Feed Yearbook summary: Summary Release. Examines world and U.S. production, consumption, trade, stocks, and prices for feed grains (focusing on corn).
FDS-AER April 28, 2008
Feeding Low-Income Children When School Is Out—The Summer Food Service Program: Executive Summary: The U.S. Department of Agriculture, through the Summer Food Service Program (SFSP), funds meals for children in low-income areas when school is not in session. USDA's Economic Research Service recently sponsored the first comprehensive study of the SFSP in more than a decade. The nationally representative study surveyed State administrators, sponsor staff, and site staff on program operations and on factors that affect participation. The study also examined the nutritional quality of meals served and the extent of plate waste. In fiscal year 2001, more than 4,000 local sponsors provided about 130 million meals at more than 35,000 feeding sites. The number of children served in July (2.1 million) was about 14 percent of the number who received free or reduced-price school meals during the previous school year.
In an effort to help target potential SFSP expansion efforts, ERS has developed the Summer Food Service Program Map Machine. The interactive web machine combines data on 2001 SFSP sponsors and sites, Census 2000 data on small geographic areas, and school census data. Users can create maps that allow them to infer at a glance whether SFSP sites are located in areas of the highest need, and whether some qualified areas have been overlooked. The Map Machine also allows for in-depth analysis of program coverage. See www.ers.usda.gov/data/sfsp.
See also: Feeding Low-Income Children When School Is Out—The Summer Food Service Program: Final Report.

FANRR30 19 pp May 16, 2003
Feeding Low-Income Children When School Is Out—The Summer Food Service Program: Final Report: The U.S. Department of Agriculture, through the Summer Food Service Program (SFSP), funds meals for children in low-income areas when school is not in session. The first comprehensive study of the SFSP since 1986 found that, in fiscal year 2001, more than 4,000 local sponsors provided about 130 million meals at more than 35,000 feeding sites. The number of children served in July 2001 (2.1 million per day) was about 14 percent of the number who received free or reduced-price school meals each day during the previous school year. On average, SFSP meals provided the levels of key nutrients recommended for school meals. However, breakfasts were slightly lower in food energy than recommended, and lunches were higher in fat. Half the SFSP sponsors were school districts, which operated about half the sites and served about half the meals. Other sponsors included government agencies, private nonprofit organizations, and residential camps. The nationally representative study, which was sponsored by USDA's Economic Research Service, surveyed State administrators, sponsor staff, and site staff on program operations and on factors that affect participation.
See also: Feeding Low-Income Children When School Is Out—The Summer Food Service Program: Executive Summary.

03001 419 pp March 26, 2003
Fertilizer Trade Statistics, 1970-91 - By order only: Covers U.S. imports and exports of nitrogen, phosphate, and potash, and U.S. import origins and export destinations for selected fertilizer materials.
ERSSB851 48 pp January 1, 1993
Fiber Use for Textiles and China’s Cotton Textile Exports: New information about the role of recycling in the textile industry and updated estimates of efficiency in spinning lower estimates of the volume of cotton fiber exported by China in the form of textiles from those of an earlier study. China’s textile industry not only meets domestic demand of the world’s most populous country but is also the world’s largest exporter. Consequently, China is the world’s largest consumer and importer of cotton, but information about China’s cotton consumption is incomplete. This analysis of China’s textile trade offers important insights into trends in China’s cotton use and imports. The revised textile trade estimates have implications for the outlook for China’s cotton consumption and imports, which this study demonstrates with an econometric model of China’s textile trade.
CWS-08i-01 18 pp March 3, 2009
Fifty Years of U.S. Food Aid and Its Role in Reducing World Hunger: This article reviews trends in global food aid donations, estimations of food gaps in the world's poorest countries, and the need to improve the targeting of food aid to enhance its effectiveness in reducing hunger.
September 1, 2004
Financial Characteristics of Vegetable and Melon Farms: This report presents a financial snapshot of the U.S. vegetable and melon farms by region and farm size over three 3-year periods (1999-2007).
VGS-342-01 33 pp February 3, 2011
Financial Performance of U.S. Commercial Farms, 1991-94: This report focuses on the 27 percent of farms, approximately 500,000, with annual gross sales of at least $50,000, farms typically considered commercial-size operations. These farms produce just over 75 percent of the value of agricultural products, and vary greatly by size, commodities produced, financial status, and operator demographics. Overall financial performance shows that the proportion of farms experiencing extreme financial stress remained stable over the last few years, and is considerably less than in the 1980's.
ERSAER751 144 pp June 1, 1997
The First Decade of Genetically Engineered Crops in the United States: Ten years after the first generation of genetically engineered (GE) varieties became commercially available, adoption of these varieties by U.S. farmers is widespread for major crops. Driven by farmers' expectations of higher yields, savings in management time, and lower pesticide costs, the adoption of corn, soybean, and cotton GE varieties has increased rapidly. Despite the benefits, however, environmental and consumer concerns may have limited acceptance of GE crops, particularly in Europe. This report focuses on GE crops and their adoption in the United States over the past 10 years. It examines the three major stakeholders of agricultural biotechnology and finds that (1) the pace of R&D activity by producers of GE seed (the seed firms and technology providers) has been rapid, (2) farmers have adopted some GE varieties widely and at a rapid rate and benefited from such adoption, and (3) the level of consumer concerns about foods that contain GE ingredients varies by country, with European consumers being most concerned.
EIB-11 36pp April 19, 2006
Fiscal 2001 U.S. Agricultural Exports Rose, but Exports by State Showed Both Gains and Losses from 2000: Fiscal 2001 U.S. agricultural exports rose $2 billion from fiscal 2000, despite the general economic slump. By State, performance was mixed for the various commodities, with some rising and others falling from 2000. Soybeans and products continued to be the largest export commodity group, accounting for $6.8 billion of the total $52.7 billion exported. Feed grains and products and live animals and meat follow as the next largest export commodity groups. California was by far the largest State exporter with exports of $8.8 billion. And, North Carolina rose into the top 10 exporting States, displacing Arkansas.
ERSFAU6602 August 2, 2002
Flexible Conservation Measures on Working Land: The 2002 Farm Bill sharply increased conservation funding and earmarked most of the increase for working-land payment programs (WLPPs). The design and implementation of WLPPs will largely determine the extent to which environmental goals are achieved and whether they are achieved cost effectively. This report simulates potential environmental gains as well as adjustments in agricultural production, price, and income associated with various WLPP features to illustrate tradeoffs arising from WLPP design and implementation.
ERR-5 79 pp June 3, 2005
Floriculture and Nursery Crops Outlook: Provides current intelligence and forecasts the effects of changing conditions in the U.S. floriculture and nursery crop sector. Topics include production, consumption, trade, prices received, and more.
AER-ERSFLO November 9, 2007
Floriculture and Nursery Crops Yearbook: Provides current intelligence and forecasts the effects of changing conditions in the U.S. floriculture and environmental horticulture sector. Topics include production, consumption, trade, prices received, and more.
AER-ERSFLO October 5, 2007
Floriculture and Nursery Crops Yearbook summary: Summary release. Provides current intelligence and forecasts the effects of changing conditions in the U.S. floriculture and environmental horticulture sector. Topics include production, consumption, trade, prices received, and more.
AER-ERSFLO September 28, 2007
Fluctuating Food Commodity Prices: A Complex Issue With No Easy Answers: Prices for food commodities have increased sharply over the past 2 years. Rising food demand in developing countries has outpaced a general slowdown in production growth of major food commodities and demand for global stockholding has fallen. Other factors behind higher food prices are increased energy costs, demand for biofuels, a weakening U.S. dollar, adverse weather, and policy responses by some major exporting and importing countries.
AER November 3, 2008
Food and Agricultural Commodity Consumption in the United States: Looking Ahead to 2020: This report analyzes how U.S. consumption of food commodities is projected to rise through 2020. The study uses date from USDA's food intake survey to project the consumption, through 2020, of 25 food groups and 22 commodity groups.
ERSAER820 62 pp February 20, 2003
The Food and Fiber System: Contributing to the U.S. and World Economies: Even though farming accounts for only about 1 percent of the total national workforce, it is at the core of the food and fiber system. The system is one of the largest sectors in the U.S. economy, and is comprised of industries related to farming, including feed, seed, fertilizer, machinery, food processing, manufacturing, and exporting. The interrelationships among the sectors of the food and fiber system and the U.S. and world economies are many and complex. As a result, U.S. and world policies and economic factors--such as interest and inflation rates--play a critical role in everything from the cost and availability of farm credit to the demand for farm products at home and abroad. The farm crisis of the 1980's illustrates how specific economic events can impact the food and fiber system. In addition, long-term changes in the system have occurred in response to shifts in consumer incomes, demographics, lifestyles, and perceptions of health and diet.
ERSAIB742 28 pp July 1, 1998
Food and Nutrition Assistance Programs and Obesity: 1976-2002: Economic Research Reports present original economic analysis, findings and implications primarily for public and private decisionmakers’ staff and researchers. This Economic Research Report analyzes multiple years of cross-sectional data to understand trends in the relationship between food assistance program participation and body weight. The purpose is to examine whether the relationship is consistent over time and across population subgroups.
ERR-48 42 pp September 21, 2007
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Innovation and Development Grants in Economics Program: Executive Summaries of 2005 Research Grants: This report summarizes research findings from the Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Innovation and Development Grants in Economics Program (RIDGE), formerly known as the Small Grants Program. The Economic Research Service created the program in 1998 to stimulate new and innovative research on food assistance and nutrition issues and to broaden the participation of social science scholars in these issues. The report includes summaries of the research projects that were awarded 1-year grants in summer and fall 2004. The results of these research projects were presented at the October 2005 Small Grants Program conference. The projects examine issues of childhood obesity, food insecurity among vulnerable populations, food assistance program participation and household well-being, and community influence on food assistance and dietary choices. Several of the projects focus on specific populations, such as people living in the rural South and those living on American Indian reservations.
The studies summarized herein were conducted under research grants originating with the Economic Research Service. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of ERS or USDA.
CCR-23 50 pp October 12, 2006
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program Final Report: Fiscal 2004 Activities: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program (FANRP) funds a portfolio of extramural research, including grants, cooperative agreements, and contracts that are competitively awarded through a tightly run peer review process. The Final Report provides an overview of FANRP's research themes, principles, and activities and describes the objectives of individual past and present research projects.
82 pp February 10, 2005
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program Final Report: Fiscal 2005 Activities: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program (FANRP) funds a portfolio of extramural research, including grants, cooperative agreements, and contracts that are competitively awarded through a tightly run peer review process. The Final Report provides an overview of FANRP's research themes, principles, activities, and publications and describes the objectives of individual research projects.
AER 46 pp January 24, 2006
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program Final Report: Fiscal 2006 Activities: The Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program has supported research on a wide range of policy-relevant food assistance and nutrition topics, resulting in over 600 publications. The 3 perennial program themes are diet and nutritional outcomes, food program targeting and delivery, and program dynamics and administration. The core food assistance programs include the Food Stamp Program, the child nutrition programs, and the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC).
AER 53 pp February 13, 2007
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program Final Report: Fiscal 2010 Activities: This report summarizes ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program (FANRP) activities and accomplishments in fiscal 2010, including newly awarded projects and recent publications. FANRP supports intramural and extramural research on a wide range of policy-relevant food assistance and nutrition topics. The three perennial program themes are (1) Program Outcomes and Economic Well-Being of Participants, (2) Program Access and Economic Determinants of Participation, and (3) Program Dynamics and Efficiency. Within these broad themes, FANRP identifies priority areas for research emphasis annually.
AP-053 35 pp January 28, 2011
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Final Report: Fiscal 1998 Activities: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program (FANRP) supports intramural and extramural research on a wide range of policy-relevant food assistance and nutrition topics. The three perennial program themes are (1) diet and nutritional outcomes, (2) food program targeting and delivery, and (3) program dynamics and administration. The core food and nutrition assistance programs include the Food Stamp Program, the child nutrition programs, and the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). This report summarizes FANRP's activities and accomplishments in fiscal 1998.
AP-003 14 pp November 20, 1998
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Final Report: Fiscal 1999 Activities: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program (FANRP) supports intramural and extramural research on a wide range of policy-relevant food assistance and nutrition topics. The three perennial program themes are (1) diet and nutritional outcomes, (2) food program targeting and delivery, and (3) program dynamics and administration. The core food and nutrition assistance programs include the Food Stamp Program, the child nutrition programs, and the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). This report summarizes FANRP's activities and accomplishments in fiscal 1999.
AP-005 31 pp January 3, 2000
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Final Report: Fiscal 2000 Activities: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program (FANRP) supports intramural and extramural research on a wide range of policy-relevant food assistance and nutrition topics. The three perennial program themes are (1) diet and nutritional outcomes, (2) food program targeting and delivery, and (3) program dynamics and administration. The core food and nutrition assistance programs include the Food Stamp Program, the child nutrition programs, and the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). This report summarizes FANRP's activities and accomplishments in fiscal 2000.
AP-007 44 pp March 7, 2001
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Final Report: Fiscal 2001 Activities: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program (FANRP) supports intramural and extramural research on a wide range of policy-relevant food assistance and nutrition topics. The three perennial program themes are (1) diet and nutritional outcomes, (2) food program targeting and delivery, and (3) program dynamics and administration. The core food and nutrition assistance programs include the Food Stamp Program, the child nutrition programs, and the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). This report summarizes FANRP's activities and accomplishments in fiscal 2001.
AP-009 55 pp January 3, 2002
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Final Report: Fiscal 2002 Activities: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program (FANRP) supports intramural and extramural research on a wide range of policy-relevant food assistance and nutrition topics. The three perennial program themes are (1) diet and nutritional outcomes, (2) food program targeting and delivery, and (3) program dynamics and administration. The core food and nutrition assistance programs include the Food Stamp Program, the child nutrition programs, and the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). This report summarizes FANRP's activities and accomplishments in fiscal 2002.
AP-011 62 pp February 24, 2003
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Final Report: Fiscal 2003 Activities: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program (FANRP) supports intramural and extramural research on a wide range of policy-relevant food assistance and nutrition topics. The three perennial program themes are (1) diet and nutritional outcomes, (2) food program targeting and delivery, and (3) program dynamics and administration. The core food and nutrition assistance programs include the Food Stamp Program, the child nutrition programs, and the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). This report summarizes FANRP's activities and accomplishments in fiscal 2003.
AP-013 66 pp February 27, 2004
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Final Report: Fiscal 2004 Activities: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program (FANRP) supports intramural and extramural research on a wide range of policy-relevant food assistance and nutrition topics. The three perennial program themes are (1) diet and nutritional outcomes, (2) food program targeting and delivery, and (3) program dynamics and administration. The core food and nutrition assistance programs include the Food Stamp Program, the child nutrition programs, and the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). This report summarizes FANRP's activities and accomplishments in fiscal 2004.
AP-015 82 pp January 28, 2005
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Final Report: Fiscal 2005 Activities: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program (FANRP) supports intramural and extramural research on a wide range of policy-relevant food assistance and nutrition topics. The three perennial program themes are (1) diet and nutritional outcomes, (2) food program targeting and delivery, and (3) program dynamics and administration. The core food and nutrition assistance programs include the Food Stamp Program, the child nutrition programs, and the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). This report summarizes FANRP's activities and accomplishments in fiscal 2005.
AP-017 46 pp January 11, 2006
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Final Report: Fiscal 2006 Activities: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program (FANRP) supports intramural and extramural research on a wide range of policy-relevant food assistance and nutrition topics. The three perennial program themes are (1) diet and nutritional outcomes, (2) food program targeting and delivery, and (3) program dynamics and administration. The core food and nutrition assistance programs include the Food Stamp Program, the child nutrition programs, and the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). This report summarizes FANRP's activities and accomplishments in fiscal 2006.
AP-019 53 pp January 30, 2007
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Final Report: Fiscal 2007 Activities: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program (FANRP) supports intramural and extramural research on a wide range of policy-relevant food assistance and nutrition topics. The three perennial program themes are (1) diet and nutritional outcomes, (2) food program targeting and delivery, and (3) program dynamics and administration. The core food and nutrition assistance programs include the Food Stamp Program, the child nutrition programs, and the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). This report summarizes FANRP's activities and accomplishments in fiscal 2007.
AP-025 61 pp March 4, 2008
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Final Report: Fiscal 2009 Activities: This report summarizes ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program (FANRP) activities and accomplishments in fiscal 2009, including newly awarded projects and recent publications. FANRP supports intramural and extramural research on a wide range of policy-relevant food assistance and nutrition topics. The three perennial program themes are (1) Program Outcomes and Economic Well-Being of Participants, (2) Program Access and Economic Determinants of Participation, and (3) Program Dynamics and Efficiency. The core food and nutrition assistance programs include the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)—formerly the Food Stamp Program—the child nutrition programs, and the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC).
AP-042 22 pp December 7, 2009
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Fiscal 1998, Competitive Grants and Cooperative Agreements Program: Description and Application Process: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program accepted proposals for grants and cooperative agreements for fiscal 1998. The three priority research areas were (1) Dietary and Nutrition Outcomes, (2) Food Program Targeting and Delivery, (3) Program Forecasting and Budget Analysis. This publication describes the research areas and application requirements. Funding for competitive awards in fiscal 1998 was between $2 million and $4 million. The deadline for proposal submission was June 5, 1998.
AP-002 21 pp April 6, 1998
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Fiscal 1999, Competitive Grants and Cooperative Agreements Program: Description and Application Process: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program accepted proposals for grants and cooperative agreements for fiscal 1999. The five priority research areas were (1) The Food Stamp Program as a Safety Net, (2) Better Serving the Working Poor, (3) WIC Program Research, (4) Child Nutrition Issues, and (5) Outcome-Based Performance Measures. This publication describes the research areas and application requirements. Funding for competitive awards in fiscal 1999 was between $2 million and $4 million. The deadline for proposal submission was June 3, 1999.
AP-004 22 pp February 24, 1999
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Fiscal 2000, Competitive Grants and Cooperative Agreements Program: Description and Application Process: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program accepted proposals for grants and cooperative agreements for fiscal 2000. The four priority research areas were (1) Reaching Underserved Populations, (2) Food Programs as a Safety Net and Client Well-Being, (3) Child Nutrition, and (4) Behavioral Nutrition. This publication describes the research areas and application requirements. Funding for competitive awards in fiscal 2000 was between $2 million and $3 million. The deadline for proposal submission was May 26, 2000.
AP-006 25 pp March 1, 2000
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Fiscal 2001, Competitive Grants and Cooperative Agreements Program: Description and Application Process: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program accepted proposals for grants and cooperative agreements for fiscal 2001. The five priority research areas were (1) Workforce Attachment, Income Volatility, and Administrative Costs, (2) Food Assistance as a Safety Net, (3) Targeting High Needs Subgroups, (4) Eating Patterns, Food Choices, and Health Outcomes, and (5) Nutrition Education: Public and Private Returns to Information. This publication describes the research areas and application requirements. Funding for competitive awards in fiscal 2001 was approximately $2 million. The deadline for proposal submission was May 18, 2001.
AP-008 24 pp April 6, 2001
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Fiscal 2002, Competitive Grants and Cooperative Agreements Program: Description and Application Process: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program accepted proposals for grants and cooperative agreements for fiscal 2002. The five priority research areas were (1) Program Design and Operations, (2) Food Assistance as a Safety Net, (3) Obesity, (4) Eating Patterns, Diet Quality, and Health Outcomes, and (5) Behavioral Nutrition. This publication describes the research areas and application requirements. Funding for competitive awards in fiscal 2002 was approximately $2 million. The deadline for proposal submission was May 17, 2002.
AP-010 25 pp March 8, 2002
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Fiscal 2003, Competitive Grants and Cooperative Agreements Program: Description and Application Process: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program accepted proposals for grants and cooperative agreements for fiscal 2003. The three priority research areas were (1) Program Design and Operations, (2) Food Assistance as a Safety Net, and (3) Obesity, Diet Quality, and Health Outcomes. This publication describes the research areas and application requirements. Funding for competitive awards in fiscal 2003 was approximately $1 million. The deadline for proposal submission was May 19, 2003.
AP-012 22 pp March 13, 2003
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Fiscal 2004, Competitive Grants and Cooperative Agreements Program: Description and Application Process: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program accepted proposals for grants and cooperative agreements for fiscal 2004. The three priority research areas were (1) Strengthening Economic Incentives in Food Assistance Programs, (2) Food Assistance as a Safety Net, and (3) Obesity, Diet Quality, and Health Outcomes. This publication describes the research areas and application requirements. Funding for competitive awards in fiscal 2004 was approximately $1.0-1.5 million. The deadline for proposal submission was May 24, 2004.
AP-014 22 pp March 19, 2004
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Fiscal 2005, Competitive Grants and Cooperative Agreements Program: Description and Application Process: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program accepted proposals for grants and cooperative agreements for fiscal 2005. The three priority research areas were (1) Strengthening Economic Incentives in Food Assistance Programs, (2) Food Assistance as a Safety Net, and (3) Food Choices, Diet Quality, Obesity, and Health Outcomes. This publication describes the research areas and application requirements. Funding for competitive awards in fiscal 2005 was approximately $1.5 million. The deadline for proposal submission was May 23, 2005.
AP-016 23 pp March 18, 2005
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Fiscal 2006, Competitive Grants and Cooperative Agreements Program: Description and Application Process: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program accepted proposals for grants and cooperative agreements for fiscal 2006. The three priority research areas were (1) Economic Incentives in Food Assistance Programs, (2) Food Assistance as a Safety Net, and (3) Food Choices, Obesity, and Human Capital. This publication describes the research areas and application requirements. Funding for competitive awards in fiscal 2006 was approximately $1.5 million. The deadline for proposal submission was May 22, 2006.
AP-018 32 pp March 17, 2006
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Fiscal 2007, Competitive Grants and Cooperative Agreements Program: Description and Application Process: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program is now accepting proposals for grants and cooperative agreements for Fiscal 2007. The three priority research areas are (1) Food Choices: Economic Determinants and Consequences, (2) Economic Incentives in Food Assistance Programs, and (3) Food Assistance as an Economic Safety Net. This publication describes the research areas and application requirements. Funding for competitive awards in fiscal 2007 is approximately $2 million. The deadline for proposal submission is May 21, 2007.
AP-020 March 16, 2007
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Fiscal 2008, Competitive Grants and Cooperative Agreements Program: Description and Application Process: ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program is now accepting proposals for grants and cooperative agreements for fiscal 2008. The three priority research areas are (1) Food Choices: Economic Determinants and Consequences, (2) Economic Incentives in Food Assistance Programs, and (3) Food Assistance as an Economic Safety Net. This publication describes the research areas and application requirements. Funding for competitive awards in fiscal 2008 is approximately $2 million. The deadline for proposal submission is May 19, 2008.
AP-027 38 pp March 17, 2008
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Fiscal 2010, Competitive Grants and Cooperative Agreements Program: Description and Application Process: The Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program (FANRP) of the USDA Economic Research Service (ERS) announces the availability of funds and a request for applications to conduct research that focuses on USDA’s domestic food assistance and nutrition programs. The three priority research areas are (1) Food Assistance and Children’s Well-Being, (2) Interactions Between the Built Environment and Food Assistance Programs, and (3) Using Behavioral Economics and Incentives To Promote Child Nutrition. ERS will accept proposals under this program for funding levels, inclusive of indirect cost when applicable, between $100,000 and $400,000 (for the duration of the grant and/or the cooperative agreement, not to exceed 3 years). Total funding available for this research is approximately $2.2-$2.7 million. The deadline for proposal submission is April 12, 2010.
AP-044 25 pp February 12, 2010
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program, Fiscal 2011, Competitive Grants and Cooperative Agreements Program: Description and Application Process: The Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program (FANRP) of the USDA Economic Research Service (ERS) invites applications to conduct research that focuses on USDA’s domestic food assistance and nutrition programs. The three priority research areas are (1) Food Assistance and the Macroeconomy, (2) Food Assistance and Food Choices, and (3) Using Behavioral Economics and Incentives To Promote Child Nutrition. ERS will accept proposals under this program for funding levels, inclusive of indirect cost when applicable, between $100,000 and $300,000 (for the duration of the grant and/or the cooperative agreement, not to exceed 3 years). ERS anticipates total funding available for this research is approximately $1.5 million. The deadline for proposal submission is April 4, 2011.
AP-055 24 pp February 4, 2011
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program: Final Report Fiscal 2008 Activities: This report summarizes ERS's Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program (FANRP) activities and accomplishments in fiscal 2008, including newly awarded projects and recent publications. FANRP supports intramural and extramural research on a wide range of policy-relevant food assistance and nutrition topics. The three perennial program themes are (1) Program Outcomes and Economic Well-Being of Participants, (2) Program Access and Economic Determinants of Participation, and (3) Program Dynamics and Efficiency. The core food and nutrition assistance programs include the Food Stamp Program, the child nutrition programs, and the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC).
AP-030 62 pp December 3, 2008
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Small Grants Program: Executive Summaries of 1998 Research Grants: The Economic Research Service Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program (FANRP) offers a Small Grants Program designed to stimulate new and innovative research on food assistance and nutrition issues and to broaden the participation of social science scholars in these issues. ERS created partnerships with five academic institutions and research institutes in administering the program. This report presents a summary of the research findings from the first set of small grants, which were awarded in the summer and fall of 1998.
ERSFANRR10 32 pp December 1, 2000
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Small Grants Program: Executive Summaries of 2000 Research Grants: This report summarizes research findings from the Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Small Grants Program. The Economic Research Service created the program in 1998 to stimulate new and innovative research on food assistance and nutrition issues and to broaden the participation of social science scholars in these issues. The report includes summaries of the second set of small grants, awarded for 1-year research projects in the summer and fall of 1999, which focus on food security, hunger, and public- and private-sector efforts to aid low-income residents of the United States through food and nutrition assistance.
ERSFANRR20 32 pp May 7, 2002
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Small Grants Program: Executive Summaries of 2001 Research Grants: This report summarizes research findings from the Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Small Grants Program. The Economic Research Service created the program in 1998 to stimulate new and innovative research on food assistance and nutrition issues and to broaden the participation of social science scholars in these issues. The report includes summaries of the research projects that were awarded 1-year grants in summer and fall 2000. The results of these research projects were presented at the 2001 Small Grants Program conference. The projects focus on food insecurity and hunger, nutritional outcomes, and the causes and consequences of food assistance program participation. Some projects focus on specific populations, such as people living in the rural South and on American Indian reservations.
FANRR37 34 pp November 19, 2003
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Small Grants Program: Executive Summaries of 2002 Research Grants: This report summarizes research findings from the Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Small Grants Program. The Economic Research Service created the program in 1998 to stimulate new and innovative research on food assistance and nutrition issues and to broaden the participation of social science scholars in these issues. The report includes summaries of the research projects that were awarded 1-year grants in summer and fall 2001. The results of these research projects were presented at the October 2002 Small Grants Program conference. The projects focus on food insecurity and hunger, nutritional status and diet quality, Federal food assistance program participation, and the role of private-sector organizations in the provision of food assistance. Some projects focus on specific populations, such as people living in the rural South and those living on American Indian reservations.
FANRR38 30 pp November 19, 2003
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Small Grants Program: Executive Summaries of 2003 Research Grants: This report summarizes research findings for the Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Small Grants Program. This report includes summaries of the research projects that were awarded 1-year grants in summer and fall 2002. The projects focus on food assistance and child well-being, food insecurity and hunger, the dynamics of food assistance program participation, obesity, and the role of community factors in dietary intake and food security. Some projects focus on specific populations, such as people living in the rural South and on American Indian reservations.
FANRR43 43 pp December 27, 2004
Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Small Grants Program: Executive Summaries of 2004 Research Grants: This report summarizes findings from Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Small Grants Program research projects that were awarded 1-year grants in the summer and fall of 2003. The results of the research projects were presented at the December 2004 Small Grants Program Conference. The projects focus on the economics of obesity, food insecurity and childhood obesity, fod assistance program participation and household well-being, community influence on food assistance and dietary choices, and welfare reform and food assistance program participation. Several projects focus on specifc populations, such as people living in the rural South and those living on American Indian reservations.
CCR-12 51 pp October 24, 2005
The Food Assistance Landscape, FY 2009 Annual Report: This report examines trends in USDA’s food and nutrition assistance programs through fiscal 2009. It also discusses a recent ERS report that examines the prevalence, severity, and characteristics of food insecurity in households with children.
EIB-6-7 6 pp March 19, 2010
The Food Assistance Landscape, FY 2010: The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) administers 15 domestic food and nutrition programs that provide a nutritional safety net for millions of children and low-income adults. The programs, which serve one in four Americans at some point during the year, are especially important during economic downturns. Accounting for over two-thirds of USDA’s budget, the programs represent a significant Federal investment. USDA’s Economic Research Service (ERS) conducts studies and evaluations of these programs. This report is based on preliminary data from USDA’s Food and Nutrition Service (FNS), the agency responsible for managing the programs. Trends in the food and nutrition assistance programs through fiscal 2010 (October 1, 2009 to September 30, 2010) are examined. ERS research reports released in 2010 also are summarized.
EIB-6-8 6 pp March 23, 2011
Food Assistance Landscape, March 2003: About half of USDA's budget supports 15 domestic food assistance programs that serve an estimated 1 in 5 Americans at some point during the year. The goals of these programs are to provide needy persons with access to a more nutritious diet, to improve the eating habits of the Nation's children, and to help America's farmers by providing an outlet for the distribution of food purchased under farmer assistance authorities. The Economic Research Service (ERS) is responsible for conducting studies and evaluations of USDA's food assistance programs, focusing on diet and nutritional outcomes, food program targeting and delivery, and program dynamics and administration. This report uses data from the Food and Nutrition Service to examine trends in the food assistance programs through fiscal 2002. It also discusses a recent ERS study on one of the smaller, highly targeted food assistance programs—the Summer Food Service Program.
FANRR28-2 6 pp February 25, 2003
The Food Assistance Landscape, March 2004: USDA's domestic food assistance programs affect the daily lives of millions of people. About 1 in 5 Americans is estimated to participate in at least 1 of 15 food assistance programs at some point during the year. Expenditures for USDA's 15 food assistance programs increased 9.4 percent in fiscal year 2003 to $41.6 billion. This exceeded the previous historical record of $38.1 billion that was spent on food assistance in fiscal 1996. Five programs—the Food Stamp Program, the National School Lunch Program, the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), the School Breakfast Program, and the Child and Adult Care Food Program—accounted for 94 percent of USDA's total expenditures for food assistance, with the expansion of the Food Stamp Program being the cause of most of the total increase in food assistance expenditures between fiscal years 2002 and 2003.
FANRR28-4 6 pp February 26, 2004
The Food Assistance Landscape, March 2005: Expenditures for USDA's 15 food assistance programs totaled $46 billion in fiscal 2004 (October 1, 2003, to September 30, 2004), marking the second consecutive year in which spending exceeded the previous record high. The fiscal 2004 spending level represented a 10-percent increase from the previous fiscal year, the fourth consecutive year in which total food assistance expenditures increased. Five programs—the Food Stamp Program, the National School Lunch Program, the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), the School Breakfast Program, and the Child and Adult Care Food Program—accounted for 94 percent of USDA's total expenditures for food assistance. While each of these major programs expanded during fiscal 2004, most of the increase in total food assistance expenditures between fiscal 2003 and fiscal 2004 was due to the increase in Food Stamp Program expenditures.
FANRR28-6 6 pp February 16, 2005
Food Assistance Landscape, March 2006: One in five Americans participates in at least one of USDA's food and nutrition assistance programs during the year. In fiscal 2005, an estimated 55 percent of USDA's budget supported the programs that provide children and low-income people with access to food, a healthful diet, and nutrition education. The Economic Research Service (ERS) is responsible for conducting studies and evaluations of USDA's food assistance programs. The Food Assistance Landscape March 2006 uses preliminary data from USDA's Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) to examine trends in the food assistance programs through fiscal 2005 (October 1, 2004, to September 30, 2005). It also discusses a recent ERS study that examined patterns of entry into and exit from the Food Stamp Program.
ERSEIB6-2 6 pp February 15, 2006
Food Assistance Landscape, September 2002: Nearly 1 in 6 Americans is served by 1 or more of the 15 domestic food assistance programs administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) at some point during the year. These programs provide needy persons with access to a more nutritious diet, provide opportunities to improve the eating habits of the Nation's children, and help America's farmers by creating an outlet for the distribution of food purchased under farmer assistance authorities. The Food Assistance Landscape, September 2002 provides a concise summary of USDA's food assistance programs at the midpoint of fiscal 2002, including trends and economic conditions affecting the programs.
FANRR28-1 6 pp October 10, 2002
Food Assistance Landscape, September 2003: Domestic food assistance programs account for over half of the U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA) outlays. Each year, about 1 in 5 Americans is served by 1 or more of the 15 food assistance programs aimed at improving the nutrition, well-being, and food security of needy Americans. The Economic Research Service (ERS) is responsible for conducting studies and evaluations of USDA's food assistance programs, focusing on the benefits of improved diets and food choices, factors that influence diet and nutrition, and program outcomes. This report uses preliminary data from USDA's Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) to examine trends in the food assistance programs at the midpoint of fiscal 2003. It also discusses two recent congressionally mandated studies conducted by ERS: an assessment of WIC cost-containment practices, and an evaluation of the USDA Fruit and Vegetable Pilot Program.
FANRR28-3 6 pp October 8, 2003
Food Assistance Landscape, September 2004: Expenditures for USDA's 15 food assistance programs totaled $23.3 billion during the first half of fiscal 2004 (October 1, 2003, to March 31, 2004), an 11-percent increase over the first half of fiscal 2003. If this trend continues during the second half of fiscal 2004, expenditures for the entire fiscal year will surpass the record $41.8 billion spent on food assistance in fiscal 2003 (prior to fiscal 2003, the previous historical record was $38.1 billion set in fiscal 1996). Five programs—the Food Stamp Program, the National School Lunch Program, the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), the School Breakfast Program, and the Child and Adult Care Food Program—accounted for almost 95 percent of USDA's total expenditures for food assistance. While each of these major programs expanded during the first half of fiscal 2004, most of the increase in total food assistance expenditures was due to the expansion of the Food Stamp Program.
FANRR28-5 6 pp October 19, 2004
Food Assistance Landscape, September 2005: USDA expenditures for its 15 food assistance programs totaled $25.9 billion during the first half of fiscal 2005 (October 2004-March 2005), an 11-percent increase over the first half of fiscal 2004. Five programs—the Food Stamp Program, the National School Lunch Program, the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), the School Breakfast Program, and the Child and Adult Care Food Program—accounted for 95 percent of USDA's total expenditures for food assistance. Spending on each of these five programs grew during the first half of fiscal 2005 relative to the first half of fiscal year 2004, but most of the increase was due to the Food Stamp Program. This report uses preliminary data from the Food and Nutrition Service to examine trends in the programs at the midpoint of fiscal 2005. It also discusses a recent ERS report that presents findings from an evaluation of projects aimed at testing ways to increase Food Stamp Program participation among eligible elderly individuals.

ERSEIB6-1 6 pp October 27, 2005
The Food Assistance Landscape: FY 2006 Annual Report: Federal expenditures for USDA’s food assistance programs totaled almost $53 billion in fiscal 2006, a 4-percent increase over the previous fiscal year. This was the sixth consecutive year in which food assistance expenditures increased and the fourth consecutive year in which they exceeded the previous historical record. The five largest food assistance programs—the Food Stamp Program, the National School Lunch Program, the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), the Child and Adult Care Food Program, and the School Breakfast Program—accounted for 95 percent of USDA's total expenditures for food assistance. This report uses preliminary data from the Food and Nutrition Service to examine trends in the programs through fiscal 2006. It also discusses a recent ERS study that examined income volatility among households with children and the implications of volatility for eligibility in the National School Lunch Program.
EIB-6-4 6pp February 13, 2007
The Food Assistance Landscape: FY 2006 Midyear Report: USDA expenditures for its 15 food assistance programs totaled $27.7 billion during the first half of fiscal 2006 (October 2005-March 2006), a 7-percent increase over the first half of fiscal 2005. Five programs—the Food Stamp Program; the National School Lunch Program; the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC); the School Breakfast Program; and the Child and Adult Care Food Program—accounted for 96 percent of USDA's total expenditures for food assistance. This report uses preliminary data from USDA’s Food and Nutrition Service to examine trends in the programs at the midpoint of fiscal 2006. It also summarizes a number of ERS research reports on the Food Stamp Program released in recent years that may help inform discussions of the 2007 reauthorization of the farm bill.
EIB-6-3 6 pp September 15, 2006
The Food Assistance Landscape: FY 2007 Annual Report: Federal expenditures for USDA’s food assistance programs totaled almost $54.3 billion in fiscal 2007, over 2 percent more than in the previous fiscal year. This rise marked the seventh consecutive year in which food assistance expenditures increased and the fifth consecutive year in which they exceeded the previous historical record. The five largest food assistance programs—the Food Stamp Program, the National School Lunch Program, the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), the Child and Adult Care Food Program, and the School Breakfast Program—accounted for 95 percent of USDA’s expenditures for food assistance. This report uses preliminary data from the Food and Nutrition Service to examine trends in the programs through fiscal 2007. It also discusses a series of recent ERS reports that compile evidence to help answer the question of whether the Food Stamp Program can do more to improve the food choices of participants.
EIB-6-5 6 pp May 30, 2008
The Food Assistance Landscape: FY 2008 Annual Report: Federal expenditures for USDA’s food assistance programs totaled $60.7 billion in fiscal 2008, 11 percent more than in the previous fiscal year—the largest percentage increase in 16 years. Fiscal 2008 marked the eighth consecutive year in which food assistance expenditures exceeded the previous historical record amount. The five largest food assistance programs in fiscal 2008—the Food Stamp Program, the National School Lunch Program, the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), the Child and Adult Care Food Program, and the School Breakfast Program—accounted for 95 percent of USDA’s expenditures for food assistance. Each of these five major programs expanded during fiscal 2008. This report uses preliminary data from USDA’s Food and Nutrition Service to examine trends in the food and nutrition assistance programs through fiscal 2008. It also discusses a recent ERS report that examined some of the issues facing the National School Lunch Program.
EIB-6-6 6 pp April 16, 2009
The Food Assistance National Input-Output Multiplier (FANIOM) Model and Stimulus Effects of SNAP: USDA’s Economic Research Service uses the Food Assistance National Input-Output Multiplier (FANIOM) model to represent and measure linkages between USDA’s domestic food assistance programs, agriculture, and the U.S. economy. This report describes the data sources and the underlying assumptions and structure of the FANIOM model and illustrates its use to estimate the multiplier effects from benefits issued under the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, formerly the Food Stamp Program). During an economic downturn, an increase in SNAP benefits provides a fiscal stimulus to the economy through a multiplier process. The report also examines the different types of multipliers for different economic variables that are estimated by input-output multiplier and macroeconomic models and considers alternative estimates of the jobs impact. FANIOM’s GDP multiplier of 1.79 for SNAP benefits is comparable with multipliers from some macroeconomic models.
ERR-103 50 pp October 1, 2010
Food Assistance Research Brief—A Healthy School Meal Environment: This report examines how schools can foster an environment that encourages healthy food choices by participants in the National School Lunch Program and the School Breakfast Program. Environmental factors that are considered to be important in affecting those choices include (1) the nutritional quality, variety, and acceptability of program meals; (2) meal scheduling; (3) nutrition education; and (4) sales of non-USDA foods.
FANRR-34-5 3 pp July 15, 2003
Food Assistance Research Brief—Assessment of WIC Cost-Containment Practices: To ensure the best use of available funds and to provide benefits to all eligible individuals, State agencies responsible for carrying out the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) have implemented one or more cost-containment practices. At the request of Congress, the Economic Research Service initiated a study to assess the impact of these practices. Three major findings emerged from the research: Food cost savings were often substantial; there were few adverse outcomes for WIC participants; and administrative costs of cost-containment practices were low.
FANRR-34-1 2 pp July 15, 2003
Food Assistance Research Brief—Certifying Eligibility in the National School Lunch Program: Nutritionally balanced National School Lunch Program (NSLP) meals are available in almost all public and many private schools. Any child at a participating school may purchase a lunch through the NSLP; over half of the 25 million NSLP lunches served on an average school day in 2001 were given to children free or at a reduced price. Current regulations allow children to be certified for free or reduced-priced lunches in two ways—direct certification based on documentation from State or local welfare offices, or certification based on an application from a child's parent or guardian. This report examines whether students who are not eligible for free or reduced-cost meals are receiving meals.
FANRR-34-4 2 pp July 15, 2003
Food Assistance Research Brief—Childhood Obesity and the Role of USDA: The rapid increase in the prevalence of overweight and obesity in children is one of the most serious public health concerns in the United States today. Although most of USDA's child nutrition programs were established in response to documented problems of underconsumption and undernutrition among the low-income population, they now have the potential to reduce the prevalence of childhood obesity. This brief examines the how USDA food assistance and nutrition programs can be used to help further that goal.
FANRR-34-11 2 pp July 15, 2003
Food Assistance Research Brief—Competitive Foods: Soft Drinks vs. Milk: "Competitive foods"—those available in schools in addition to USDA-provided school meals—have lower nutritional quality than school meals. This report reviews current information on the impact of competitive foods in school meal programs and presents a case study on competition between milk and soft drinks.
FANRR-34-7 3 pp July 15, 2003
Food Assistance Research Brief—Do Healthy School Meals Cost More?: With child obesity soaring and the juvenile incidence of diabetes and hypertension also on the rise in the United States, there is strong policy interest in the potential of USDA school meals to promote healthy diets and weights. It has been argued, however, that improving the nutritional quality of school meals will raise costs. This report examines whether improving the nutritional quality of meals served by the National School Lunch Program and School Breakfast Program increases program costs.
FANRR-34-6 2 pp July 15, 2003
Food Assistance Research Brief—Estimating Eligibility and Participation in WIC: The number of participants in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) has increased dramatically since the program began in 1974. The increase in the number of participants has been largely the result of increased congressional funding as well as cost-containment measures. USDA's annual estimates of the number of people eligible to participate in the WIC program are used to develop budget requests for WIC. Estimation of eligibility and participation is a complex process, due to data limitations, varying State program eligibility criteria, and alternate definitions of key variables.
FANRR-34-3 2 pp July 15, 2003
Food Assistance Research Brief—Feeding Low-Income Children When School Is Out: The Summer Food Service Program: The Summer Food Service Program (SFSP) is the major Federal resource available to provide children from low-income families with nutritious meals when school is not in session. Small in comparison with the National School Lunch Program, which served 15.5 million children in 2001, the SFSP served 2.1 million children. Growing interest in improving SFSP operations and expanding participation led USDA to commission the first comprehensive examination of the program since 1986. This brief presents findings from the study.
FANRR-34-10 2 pp July 15, 2003
Food Assistance Research Brief—Food Insecurity in Households With Children: Household food security, defined as access at all times to enough food for active healthy living, is taken for granted by most American children. However, some parents do have difficulty at times getting enough food for themselves and, more rarely, for their children. This brief examines the extent to which the diets and eating patterns of American children are disrupted because their families cannot always afford enough food.
FANRR-34-13 2 pp July 15, 2003
Food Assistance Research Brief—Importance of Child Nutrition Programs to Agriculture: This research brief estimates the impact of specific USDA child-nutrition programs on production, value added, and jobs on U.S. farms, looking at the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children, the Child and Adult Care Food Program, and a combined group of school programs (the National School Lunch, School Breakfast, Special Milk, and Summer Food Service Programs).
FANRR-34-12 2 pp July 15, 2003
Food Assistance Research Brief—Reimbursement Tiering Improves Targeting but Decreases Participation in the Child and Adult Care Food Program: The Family Child Care Homes Legislative Changes Study found that family child care homes in the Child and Adult Care Food Program serve fewer children but more of the children are from low-income families. Prior to the tiered reimbursement system, which started in 1997, 21 percent of the children served were from low-income families. Post-tiering, that number rose to 45 percent.
FANRR-34-9 2 pp July 15, 2003
Food Assistance Research Brief—Tiering Increases CACFP Sponsors' Administrative Tasks: The two-tiered meal reimbursement system instituted in 1997 within the child care homes portion of the Child and Adult Care Food Program added new duties for sponsoring organizations. This report examines how these new duties have affected the sponsoring organizations' administrative tasks.
FANRR-34-8 2 pp July 15, 2003
Food Assistance Research Brief—WIC and Breastfeeding Rates: The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) promotes breastfeeding as the preferred method for feeding infants. The breastfeeding rates among women participating in WIC, although improving, continue to be significantly lower than the Healthy People 2010 target. Healthy People 2010, established by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, is a set of health objectives for the Nation to achieve over the first decade of the new century. It recommends that at least 75 percent of women initiate breastfeeding and at least 50 percent continue breastfeeding for at least 6 months.
FANRR-34-2 2 pp July 15, 2003
Food Assistance Research Brief--The USDA Fruit and Vegetable Pilot Program Evaluation: Getting kids to eat more fruits and vegetables can be a significant challenge. A recent ERS study found one program was very successful in achieving the difficult objective. Many elementary and secondary students who ate free snacks of fresh and dried fruits and fresh vegetables as part of USDA's Fruit and Vegetable Pilot Program (FVPP) said they improved their eating habits and were more willing to try unfamiliar fruits and formerly disliked vegetables as a result of participating in the pilot. Funded for the 2002-03 school year at $6 million by the 2002 Farm Bill, the pilot program also was considered a success by school staff members who ran it. The pilot operated in 107 U.S. elementary and secondary schools—100 schools in 4 States (25 schools each in Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, and Ohio) and 7 schools in the Zuni Indian Tribal Organization (ITO) in New Mexico. The program's intent was to promote fresh fruit and vegetable consumption among schoolchildren as concern spreads among health experts about the increasing number of overweight and obese children. A large majority of participating schools that responded to a survey about the pilot program believe that it would be feasible to continue the pilot if funding were made available and that the funding of about $94 per student was adequate.
The research brief is based on a Report to Congress, Evaluation of the USDA Fruit and Vegetable Pilot Program: Report to Congress.
The current Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Program is administered by USDA's Food and Nutrition Service (FNS). For information about child nutrition program participation, contact the State agencies that administer the program.

FANRR-34-14 2 pp September 11, 2003
Food Assistance Research Briefs: America's most important resource is its children. Many of this Nation's children are served by one or more of USDA's domestic food assistance programs. ERS' Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program created the Food Assistance Research Briefs series to provide concise and timely insights from recent ERS research of Federal food assistance programs. This group of briefs looks at some of the issues currently facing those programs targeted specifically to children. These programs include the National School Lunch Program, the WIC Program, the Child and Adult Care Food Program, and the Summer Food Service Program, and account for over one-third of total spending for food assistance.
AER-FANRR34 September 8, 2003
Food Assistance: How Strong Is the Safety Net?: Food-assistance programs provide a safety net to help U.S. households purchase sufficient food. These programs, particularly the Food Stamp Program, increase food spending and household income. In 2004, adding food stamp benefits to recipients’ incomes raised 9 percent of recipients out of poverty. Food assistance programs, particularly the school meals and the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) programs, have also been promoted as offering access to essential nutrients and minerals, however, the nutritional effects of these programs are uncertain.
AER September 1, 2006
Food Assistance: How Strong Is the Safety Net?: Food-assistance programs provide a safety net to help U.S. households purchase sufficient food. These programs, particularly the Food Stamp Program, increase food spending and household income. In 2004, adding food stamp benefits to recipients’ incomes raised 9 percent of recipients out of poverty. Food assistance programs, particularly the school meals and the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) programs, have also been promoted as offering access to essential nutrients and minerals, however, the nutritional effects of these programs are uncertain.
AER May 1, 2007
Food Consumption, Prices, and Expenditures, 1970-97: This annual bestseller presents historical data on food consumption, prices, and expenditures by commodity and commodity group, supply and use, prices, total expenditures, and U.S. income and population. Includes 29 charts dealing with food consumption trends, from changes in per capita consumption, to share of income spent for food.
SB-965 189 pp April 2, 1999
Food Cost Review, 1950-97: Food prices, as measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI), increased 2.6 percent in 1997. This increase was greater than the overall increase in the CPI (which rose 2.3 percent) for the third consecutive year. Higher charges for processing and distributing food, as measured by the farm-to-retail price spread, were primarily responsible for the 1997 increase. The prices farmers received for commodities, as measured by the farm value of USDA's market basket of foods, dropped 4.4 percent. The farm value share of the food dollar spent in grocery stores in 1997 was 23 percent, a decrease of 2 percent from 1996. The farm-to-retail price spread of USDA's market basket of foods rose 4.7 percent, partly reflecting higher prices of inputs, such as labor.
ERSAER780 June 1, 1999
Food Dynamics and USDA's New Dietary Guidelines: Food Dynamics provides the most up-to-date information on consumer behavior and retail food market conditions.
ERSEIB5 2 pp September 30, 2005
Food Expenditures by U.S. Households: Looking Ahead to 2020: Over the next two decades, U.S. food expenditures will continue to rise. This study examines how projected food expenditures will be affected by demographic changes, population growth, increasing per capita income levels, and other factors.
ERSAER821 38 pp February 20, 2003
Food Industry Mergers and Acquisitions Lead to Higher Labor Productivity: Processing plants in eight major food industries were highly productive before being acquired and they significantly improved their labor productivity afterward, Economic Research Service and U.S. Census Bureau researchers found in their analysis of Census data. The industries are meat packing, meat processing, poultry slaughtering and processing, cheese making, fluid milk processing, flour milling, feed processing, and oilseed crushing. The analysis suggests that mergers and acquisitions contributed to the general improvement in labor productivity from 1972-92, echoing an earlier ERS study. Labor productivity is defined as output per worker.
ERR-27 39 pp October 23, 2006
Food Insecurity in Higher Income Households: Twenty percent of U.S. households classified as food insecure had midrange or high incomes, according to responses to the 1995-97 Current Population Survey. This study investigates the extent to which these households were food insecure and what proportion of them may have been incorrectly identified as food insecure because of problems in the measurement methods. The study finds that a small proportion, at most, of measured food insecurity among middle- and high-income households appears to be due to misunderstanding of questions or erratic responses. Some households in these income groups are food insecure due to factors such as uneven incomes or changes in household composition during the year or to the existence of multiple economic units in the same household.
02016 50 pp September 20, 2002
Food Insecurity in Households with Children: Prevalence, Severity, and Household Characteristics: Eighty-four percent of U.S. households with children were food secure throughout 2007, meaning that they had consistent access to adequate food for active, healthy lives for all household members. Nearly 16 percent of households with children were food insecure sometime during the year, including 8.3 percent in which children were food insecure and 0.8 percent in which one or more children experienced very low food security—the most severe food-insecure condition measured by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Numerous studies suggest that children in food-insecure households have higher risks of health and development problems than children in otherwise similar food-secure households. This study found that about 85 percent of households with food-insecure children had a working adult, including 70 percent with a full-time worker. Fewer than half of households with food-insecure children included an adult educated past high school. Thus, job opportunities and wage rates for less educated workers are important factors affecting the food security of children. In 2007, Federal food and nutrition assistance programs provided benefits to four out of five low-income, food-insecure households with children.
EIB-56 49 pp September 21, 2009
Food Insecurity Up in Recessionary Times: The recent economic downturn has brought a sharp increase in the number of Americans who report having difficulty meeting their food needs. In fact, in 2008, the number and percentage of U.S. households classified as “food insecure” reached the highest level recorded since Federal monitoring of food insecurity began in 1995. USDA’s food and nutrition assistance programs provide additional resources in times of rising food insecurity. In fiscal 2008, combined expenditures for all USDA food and nutrition assistance programs totaled $60.6 billion, an increase of 10 percent over expenditures in 2007.
AER November 16, 2009
Food Manufacturing Productivity and Its Economic Implications: The gross-output multifactor productivity index for U.S. food manufacturing grew 0.19 percent per year between 1975 and 1997. This productivity growth is low when compared with an estimate of 1.25 percent per year for the whole manufacturing sector. Low investment in research and development (R&D) could be one reason. Although productivity has been relatively low, food manufacturing output has grown significantly at 1.88 percent over the last two decades. Indeed, the expansion of combined factor inputs provided significant impetus to food manufacturing output. Food manufacturing is materials-intensive, and declining real producer prices of crude food and feedstuffs fueled the expansion of input utilization and drove down prices of processed foods paid by consumers.
TB-1905 56 pp November 5, 2003
The Food Marketing System in 1995: The number of new food processing plants rose sharply in 1995. Profitability from food manufacturing and retailing operations (excluding interest expense) continued to increase, reflecting strong sales, wage and producer price stability, and streamlining of operations. The number of mergers and leveraged buyouts fell. New product introductions, consumer advertising expenditures, common stock prices and the positive U.S. balance of trade in processed food reached new highs. This report analyzes and assesses yearly developments in growth, conduct, performance, and structure of the institutions--food processors, wholesalers, retailers, and foodservice firms--that comprise the Nation's food marketing system. Industry growth includes changes in sales for each of the four sectors, product mix, and external economic factors affecting the food system. Conduct measures firms' competitive behavior, which includes such price and nonprice competition as advertising, promotion, new product introduction, new store formats, price discounting, and menu variety. Performance includes profitability, capital expansion, foreign trade and investment, research and development, capacity use, equity market changes, and productivity. Structure developments include mergers, acquisitions, divestitures and leveraged buyouts, and changes in the number of companies and establishments.
ERSAIB731 20 pp April 15, 1997
The Food Marketing System in 1996: New food product introductions fell sharply in 1996. The number of new plants, consumer advertising expenditures, and common stock prices reached new highs in 1996, as did the number of mergers in the foodservice industry. Profitability from food manufacturing and retailing was higher due to strong sales, wage and producer price stability, and streamlining of operations.
ERSAIB743 20 pp July 1, 1998
Food Policy: Check the List of Ingredients: Policies designed to improve the diet quality and health of Americans are likely to have only marginal effects on consumers’ food choices. However, policies targeted directly at consumers such as nutrition information and education programs, along with labeling regulations, can spur the reformulation of products with healthier ingredients by stimulating competition among food manufacturers to offer products that appeal to health-conscious consumers. Manufacturers’ responsiveness to food policy provides policymakers with a lever to affect diet quality for large numbers of consumers. Effective use of this lever can help stimulate a chain reaction leading to healthy food reformulations and a more nutritious food supply.
AER May 15, 2009
Food Safety and Imports: An Analysis of FDA Import Refusal Reports: This report examines U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) data on refusals of food offered for importation into the United States from 1998 to 2004. Although the data do not necessarily reflect the distribution of risk in foods, the study found that import refusals highlight food safety problems that appear to recur in trade and where the FDA has focused its import alerts, examinations (e.g., sampling), and other monitoring efforts. The data show some food industries and types of violations may be consistent sources of problems both over time and in comparison with previous studies of more limited data. The three food industry groups with the most violations were vegetables (20.6 percent of total violations), fishery and seafood (20.1 percent), and fruits (11.7 percent). Violations observed over the entire time period include sanitary issues in seafood and fruit products, pesticides in vegetables, and unregistered processes for canned food products in all three industries.
EIB-39 47 pp September 9, 2008
Food Safety and International Trade: This research brief presents some of the highlights of the ERS report, "International Trade and Food Safety: Economic Theory and Case Studies."
ERSAIB789-1 2 pp February 24, 2004
Food Safety and International Trade—Research Briefs: Expanding food trade has brought into sharper relief the divergence among countries' food safety regulations and standards. Differences in food safety regulations and standards can cause frictions and even disputes that interrupt international food trade. Countries are, however, tackling food safety and trade issues by learning from each other's successes in managing food safety to narrow regulatory differences, collaborating to adopt common or international standards set by a third party, or reaching compromises on conflicting standards. This set of research briefs presents some of the highlights of the ERS report, "International Trade and Food Safety: Economic Theory and Case Studies."

See full report International Trade and Food Safety: Economic Theory and Case Studies.

ERSAIB789 March 11, 2004
Food Safety and International Trade: Theoretical Issues: This research brief examines the conceptual relationships between food safety and international trade.
ERSAIB789-2 2 pp February 24, 2004
Food Safety and Product Liability: This paper focuses on the U.S. product liability system for food poisoning cases and makes six key points. First, current legal incentives to produce safer food are limited, though slightly stronger in outbreak situations and in markets where foodborne illness can be more easily traced to individual firms. It appears that less than 0.01 percent of cases are litigated and even fewer are paid compensation. Second, even if potential plaintiffs can overcome the high information and transaction costs necessary to file lawsuits, monetary compensation provides limited incentives to pursue litigation. Firms paid compensation in 56 percent percent of the 294 cases examined in this study and the median compensation was $2,000 before legal fees. Third, indirect incentives for firms may be important and deserve more research. For example, firms may be influenced by costly settlements and decisions against other firms in the same industry. Fourth, confidential settlements, health insurance, and product liability insurance distort legal incentives to produce safer food. Fifth, the ambiguity about whether microbial contamination is "natural" or an "adulterant" hinders the legal system from effectively dealing with food safety issues. Sixth, a brief comparison of the incentives from U.S. and English legal systems suggests that more research is needed to understand the strengths, weaknesses, and relative impact of each country’s legal system on the incentives to produce safer food.
EEJS0006 December 1, 1999
Food Safety and Trade: Regulations, Risks, and Reconciliation: The Amber Waves feature, "Food Safety and Trade: Regulations, Risks, and Reconciliation" offers a synthesis of key findings from the AER titled "International Trade and Food Safety: Economic Theory and Case Studies," which examines the conceptual relationships between food safety and international trade and analyzes empirical examples from the meat and poultry, produce, food and animal feed crop, and seafood sectors.
November 7, 2003
Food Safety Audits, Plant Characteristics, and Food Safety Technology Use in Meat and Poultry Plants: Food safety technology can increase a company’s capacity to prevent a foodborne contamination. A food safety audit—a quality control tool in which an auditor observes whether a plant’s processing practices and technologies are compatible with good food safety practices—can indicate how effectively food safety technology is being used. Fast food restaurants, grocery stores, and other major customers of meat and poultry processing plants conduct their own audits or hire auditors to assess the soundness of a plant’s processing operation. Meat and poultry plants can also audit themselves as a way to help maintain process control. In this report, we document the extent of food safety audits in meat and poultry processing plants. We also examine the associations between the use of audits and plant size, firm structure, and food safety technology use. Results show that larger plants, plants subject to food safety audits, and plants that are part of a multiplant firm use more food safety technology than other plants. Plants subject to both plant-hired and customer-hired audits had greater technology use than single (plant- or customer-hired) audit plants.
EIB-82 44 pp October 3, 2011
Food Safety Improvements Underway in China: Adverse publicity about contaminated food incidents has prompted improved food safety programs in China for both the domestic and export market. This article reviews the challenges for Chinese food safety and government programs to improve standards. Only a small portion of Chinese production for the domestic market currently meets the new government standards for safer food. Producing safer food for export is expensive and reduces China’s cost advantage in world markets.
AER November 1, 2006
Food Safety Innovation in the United States: Evidence from the Meat Industry: Recent industry innovations improving the safety of the Nation's meat supply range from new pathogen tests, high-tech equipment, and supply chain management systems, to new surveillance networks. Despite these and other improvements, the market incentives that motivate private firms to invest in innovation seem to be fairly weak. Results from an ERS survey of U.S. meat and poultry slaughter and processing plants and two case studies of innovation in the U.S. beef industry reveal that the industry has developed a number of mechanisms to overcome that weakness and to stimulate investment in food safety innovation.
AER-831 56 pp April 1, 2004
Food Safety Issues for Meat/Poultry Products and International Trade: This research summarizes three case studies of how trade in meat and poultry products can be affected by food safety concerns.
ERSAIB789-4 2 pp February 24, 2004
Food Security and Food Aid Distribution: This briefing paper examines the effectiveness of food aid in reducing transitory and emergency food insecurity. Global demand for food aid is outpacing supply and any improvement in food aid distribution systems could improve food security of the lower income countries.
ERSAIB765-4 1 pp April 26, 2001
Food Security Assessment: Broad trends in food production and prices indicate a decline in the share of people who do not have access to adequate food levels. However, the overall figures mask variation in food security among regions, countries, and income groups within countries. In 1998, per capita food consumption in 66 low-income countries is projected to fall short of 1996-98 levels (“status quo”) by nearly 11 million tons, up from 8.5 million tons estimated for 1997. The gap between actual consumption and minimum nutritional requirements is expected to be even larger at 17.6 million tons. During the next decade, food gaps with respect to the status quo and nutritional targets are expected to widen further. Food consumption is projected to fall short of the nutritional requirement in 35 countries, while 47 countries are expected to face a decline in per capita consumption in 2008. The 67 countries in the study either have been or may become food aid recipients. The projections, however, exclude the availability of food aid. Therefore, depending upon future food aid availability, some or all of the projected food gaps can be eliminated.
ERSGFA10 January 4, 1999
Food Security Assessment 2005, GFA 17: In 2005, 777 million people were food insecure in 70 lower income countries studied in this report. On average, there has been a slight decline in the number of hungry people from 688 million in 1992-94 to 639 million in 2002-04. Both Asia and the Commonwealth of Independent States experienced a 30-percent drop in the number of hungry people. The number in Latin America and the Caribbean has varied slightly over time, but there has been no discernible trend across the region as a whole. Despite strong growth in food production, Sub-Saharan Africa is the only region where the number of hungry people has risen—over 19 percent—during the last decade.
GFA-17 58 pp May 31, 2006
FOOD SECURITY ASSESSMENT GFA-11: Broad trends in food production and prices indicate a decline in the share of people who do not have access to adequate food levels. However, the overall figures mask variation in food security among regions, countries, and income groups within countries. In 1999, per capita food consumption in 67 low-income countries is projected to fall short of 1996-98 levels (“status quo”) by nearly 13 million tons, about 2 million tons more than estimated for 1998. Around 400,000 tons of the increase arose from adding a new country, North Korea, to the analysis this year. The gap between actual consumption and minimum nutritional requirements is expected to be even larger at 15 million tons. During the next decade, food gaps with respect to the status quo and nutritional targets are expected to widen further. Food consumption is projected to fall short of the nutritional requirement in 30 countries, while 45 countries are expected to face a decline in per capita consumption in 2009. The 67 countries in the study either have been or may become food aid recipients. The projections, however, exclude the availability of food aid. Therefore, depending upon future food aid availability, some or all of the projected food gaps can be eliminated.
ERSGFA11 January 6, 2000
Food Security Assessment GFA12: USDA's Economic Research Service (ERS) projects that average per capita food consumption for 67 low-income countries will increase in the next decade. ERS also projects that the number of people failing to meet their nutritional requirements will decline from 774 million in 2000 to 694 million in 2010, providing an improved outlook for global food security. But the gains are not uniform across countries and in many food insecurity will probably intensify. Sub-Saharan Africa, as the most vulnerable region, accounts for only 24 percent of the population of these 67 countries, but it is projected to account for 63 percent of these hungry people in 2010. HIV/AIDS is expected to reduce the region's agricultural productivity, and constraints in financial resources will limit commercial imports, thus leading to declining per capita consumption.
ERSGFA12 80 pp March 5, 2001
Food Security Assessment GFA13: The Food Security Assessment report provides food gap and hunger projections for 67 potentially food insecure countries in North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, and NIS.
GFA-13 79 pp April 23, 2002
Food Security Assessment GFA14: This report projects food gaps in 70 low-income developing countries and presents findings for North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, and the New Independent States of the former Soviet Union.
ERSGFA14 88 pp February 19, 2003
Food Security Assessment Situation and Outlook.: This report projects food availability for 66 countries during the next decade. The results are also used to project consumption by income group to analyze the severity of nutritional problems with the countries.
ERSGFA10 December 1, 1998
Food Security Assessment Situation and Outlook.: In 1999, the food gap to maintain per capita consumption at 1996-98 levels in 67 low-income developing countries is estimated at nearly 13 million tons, about 2 million tons more than estimated for 1998. Around 400,000 tons of the increase arose from adding a new country, North Korea, to the analysis this year. The gap to meet minimum nutritional requirements is estimated to be higher at 15 million tons. During the next decade, the food gaps with respect to both consumption targets are projected to widen. Food consumption is projected to fall short of the nutritional requirement in 30 countries, while 44 countries are expected to face a decline in per capita consumption in 2009. Contacts: shapouri@ERS.USDA.gov, slrosen@ERS.USDA.gov.
ERSGFA11 December 13, 2000
Food Security Assessment, 2006: The number of hungry people in the 70 lower income countries covered in this report rose between 2005 and 2006, from 804 million to 849 million. However, the food distribution gap—an indicator of food access—declined, which means that, although more people are vulnerable to food insecurity, the intensity was less in 2006 than in 2005. By 2016, the number of hungry people is projected to decline in all regions, except Sub-Saharan Africa. The average nutrition gap, the indicator of food availability, was 13.5 million tons (grain equivalent) in 2006 and is expected to increase to 14 million tons by 2016. Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for 85 percent of this gap, the low-income countries of Asia for only 14 percent, and the low-income countries of Latin America and the Caribbean for the remaining 1 percent. The average nutrition gap was much smaller than the distribution gap, which takes into account unequal purchasing power within countries. The distribution gap was an estimated 27 million tons in 2006 for all 70 countries, decreasing to close to 26 million tons by 2016.
GFA-18 49 pp June 28, 2007
Food Security Assessment, 2007: The number of food insecure people in the 70 lower income countries covered in this report rose between 2006 and 2007, from 849 million to 982 million. Food insecure people are those consuming less than the nutritional target of 2,100 calories per day. The food security situation of these countries is projected to deteriorate over the next decade. The distribution gap—an indicator of food access—is projected to rise from 44 million tons in 2007 to more than 57 million tons in 2017. This is more than seven times the amount of food aid received by these countries in 2006. Sub-Saharan Africa, already the most vulnerable region with the lowest calorie intake levels, will suffer the greatest deterioration in food security.
GFA-19 55 pp July 3, 2008
Food Security Assessment, 2008-09: Food security in 70 developing countries is projected to deteriorate over the next decade, according to USDA’s Economic Research Service. After rising nearly 11 percent from 2007 to 2008, the number of food-insecure people in the developing countries analyzed by ERS researchers is estimated to rise to 833 million in 2009, an almost 2-percent rise from 2008 to 2009. Despite a decline in food prices in late 2008, deteriorating purchasing power and food security are expected in 2009 because of the growing financial deficits and higher inflation that have occurred in recent years. Food-insecure people are defined as those consuming less than the nutritional target of 2,100 calories per day per person.
GFA-20 58 pp June 30, 2009
Food Security Assessment, 2010-20: Food security in 70 developing countries is estimated to have improved between 2009 and 2010, in part due to economic recovery in many of these countries. The number of food-insecure people in the developing countries analyzed by ERS researchers is estimated to decrease about 7.5 percent from 2009 to 882 million in 2010. The number of food-insecure people at the aggregate level will not improve much over the next decade, declining by only 1 percent. While there will be notable improvements in Asia and Latin America, the situation in Sub-Saharan Africa is projected to deteriorate after 2010. Food-insecure people are defined as those consuming less than the nutritional target of 2,100 calories per day per person.
GFA-21 64 pp July 8, 2010
Food Security Assessment, GFA 16: Just over 1 billion people in the 70 low-income countries studied in this report are estimated to have consumed less than the recommended nutritional requirements in 2004. This marks an increase from more than 830 million in 2003. Over the coming decade, food security is projected to improve most significantly in Asia, followed by Latin America and the Caribbean. The situation is expected to deteriorate in Sub-Saharan Africa, where deep poverty, political unrest, and the effects of HIV/AIDS hinder prospects for improvement.
ERSGFA16 60 pp May 3, 2005
Food Security Assessment, GFA-15: Just over 900 million people in the 70 low-income countries studied in this report are estimated to have consumed less than the recommended nutritional requirements in 2003. This marks a decline from more than 1 billion in 2002. Although food security is expected to improve in all regions over the coming decade, this improvement will vary. Food security is projected to improve most significantly in Asia, followed by Latin America and the Caribbean. Although some improvement is also expected in Sub-Saharan Africa, the deep poverty at the root of hunger problems in the lower income population will remain unchanged. Food aid has been and continues to be an important tool used by the international community to fight hunger in low-income countries, and the United States is the dominant food donor country. However, the effectiveness of food aid could be improved by increased coordination between donor groups, more transparent eligibility criteria, and fewer fluctuations in year-to-year aid levels.
GFA-15 92 pp May 24, 2004
FOOD SECURITY ASSESSMENT. GFA-9.: The world's resources are adequate to produce enough food for its population for at least the next few decades. The available food, however, is not distributed evenly. In 66 low-income countries, food availability (production plus commercial imports) is projected to increase more slowly than the population growth during the next decade, leading to a decline in per capita consumption. To stabilize consumption at recently achieved levels (average of 1994-96), the projected additional food required is 8.5 million tons in 1997, increasing to 18 million tons by 2007. Many low-income countries are also unable to meet minimum nutritional requirements of their people, and this nutritional gap--the difference between food availability and nutritional requirement--is projected to grow from 15 million tons in 1997 to 24 million tons by 2007. This report projects food availability for 66 countries during the next decade. Projections are based on long-term trends and policies that are currently in place. The results are also used to project consumption by income group to analyze the severity of nutritional problems within the countries. The report includes an overview section which provides a global and regional outlook of food security. Four research papers discuss topics related to food security.
ERSGFA9 January 30, 1998
Food Security Assessment: Regional Overview: This briefing paper covers 67 low-income countries in five regions. Sub-Saharan Africa is identified as the most vulnerable region: with only 25 percent of the population in the 67 countries, its nutritional needs account for 65 percent of the total for all countries.
ERSAIB765-1 1 pp April 25, 2001
Food Security Assessment: Why Countries Are at Risk: Food insecurity in many low-income, developing countries is projected to intensify unless steps are taken to reverse the performance trend of key contributing factors: agricultural productivity, foreign exchange earnings, and population growth. For the poorest countries, an increase in agricultural productivity is the key to improving food security. In these countries, imports play a small role in the domestic food supply because of limited foreign exchange availability. This study evaluates availability and distribution of food and analyzes their trends through 2008 by projecting food gaps to maintain per capita consumption, meet nutritional needs, and fulfill requirements stemming from unequal food distribution.
ERSAIB754 32 pp August 1, 1999
Food Security Improved Following the 2009 ARRA Increase in SNAP Benefits: The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 increased benefit levels for the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, formerly known as the Food Stamp Program) and expanded SNAP eligibility for jobless adults without children. One goal of the program changes was to improve the food security of low-income households. We find that food expenditures by low-income households increased by about 5.4 percent and their food insecurity declined by 2.2 percentage points from 2008 to 2009. Food security did not improve for households with incomes somewhat above the SNAP eligibility range. These findings, based on data from the nationally representative Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement, suggest that the ARRA SNAP enhancements contributed substantially to improvements for low-income households.
ERR-116 52 pp April 26, 2011
Food Security in Central America: These five reports on food security were produced as part of USDA reconstruction activities for Hurricane Mitch. They focus on the four individual countries most affected by the hurricane—El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua.
GFA October 1, 2001
Food Security Is Improving in the United States: This issue paper provides an update of recent trends in food security in the United States and discusses related policy and programmatic factors.
ERSAIB765-7 1 pp April 26, 2001
Food Security of SNAP Recipients Improved Following the 2009 Stimulus Package: The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) of April 2009 increased monthly benefit levels for participants in the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, formerly known as the Food Stamp Program) and expanded SNAP eligibility for jobless adults without children. By December 2009, 8 months after ARRA was implemented, SNAP participation increased, food expenditures by low-income households increased, and food insecurity among low-income households declined by 2.2 percentage points.
AER May 16, 2011
Food Spending Adjustments During Recessionary Times: During the 2007-09 recession, inflation-adjusted food expenditures by U.S. households fell 5.0 percent—the largest decrease in at least 25 years. Spending patterns differed by income level, with middle-income households curbing expenditures the most. Households responded to the recession by cutting back on eating out and by economizing on grocery purchases.
AER August 22, 2011
Food Spending Declined and Food Insecurity Increased for Middle-Income and Low-Income Households from 2000 to 2007: From 2000 to 2007, median spending on food by U.S. households declined by 12 percent relative to the (rising) cost of USDA’s Thrifty Food Plan, and by 6 percent relative to the (rising) Consumer Price Index (CPI) for Food and Beverages. Over the same period, the national prevalence of very low food security increased by about one-third, from 3.1 percent of households in 2000 to 4.1 percent in 2007. The deterioration in food security was greatest in the second-lowest income quintile, in which the prevalence of very low food security increased by about half. These estimates, based on data from the nationally representative Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement, are corroborated by corresponding declines in food expenditures by middle- and low-income households in the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics’ Consumer Expenditure Survey. The decline was largest in the second-lowest income quintile, in which average CPI-infl ation-adjusted spending for food declined by 16 percent. The declines in food spending by middle- and low-income households were accompanied by increases in spending for housing and, in the two lowest income quintiles, by declines in income and total spending.
EIB-61 25 pp October 23, 2009
Food Spending in American Households, 1997-98: Average yearly expenditures on food in urban households remained constant between 1997 and 1998. In 1998, the typical household spent $1,773 per person versus $1,767 the previous year. Of this amount, $1,094 was spent on food consumed at home and $679 on food consumed away from home. In 1997, slightly more was spent on food at home, $1,126, and slightly less on food consumed away from home, $641. Detailed tabulations are presented for 133 food categories and 10 household socioeconomic characteristics for 1997 and 1998. The data are from the Consumer Expenditure Diary Surveys prepared by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
ERSSB972 86 pp June 6, 2001
Food Spending in American Households, 2003-04: Average yearly expenditures on food in U.S. urban households increased between 2003 and 2004. Over the period, annual per capita spending on food rose from $2,035 to $2,207. The 2004 average comprises $1,347 spent on food consumed at home and $860 spent on food consumed away from home. These amounts reflect a year-to-year increase of 7.9 percent in food-at-home expenditures and 9.3 percent in food-away-from-home expenditures. Wealthier urban households tended to spend more than other urban households for both food at home and food away from home, and they spent a larger share of their food budget than other households on food consumed away from home. The share of the food budget spent on food consumed away from home varied from 30 percent for the poorest group to 44 percent for the wealthiest.
EIB-23 115 pp March 13, 2007
The Food Stamp Benefit Formula: Implications for Empirical Research on Food Demand: To discover the Food Stamp Program's effect on food spending, researchers often rely on regression models that require some source of independent variation in food stamp benefits. This article examines three sources of independent variation, which appear promising at first look: (a) variation in household size, (b) variation in deductions from gross income, and (c) receipt of minimum or maximum food stamp benefits. Based on the results, the article raises concern about popular regression approaches to studying the Food Stamp Program.
eejs0209 February 13, 2002
Food Stamp Benefits and Childhood Poverty in the 1990s: In 2000, 8.8 million children received food stamps, making the Food Stamp Program a crucial component of the social safety net. Despite its importance, little research has examined the effect of food stamps on children's overall well-being. Using the Current Population Survey from 1989 to 2001, we consider the impact of food stamps on three measures of poverty—the headcount, the poverty gap, and the squared poverty gap. These measures portray the incidence, depth, and severity of poverty. We find that in comparison to the headcount measure, food stamp benefits lead to large reductions in the poverty gap and squared poverty gap measures. We then simulate the effects of several changes in the distribution of food stamps and find that a general across-the-board increase in benefits has little impact on poverty reduction. In contrast, targeted changes can greatly reduce the depth and severity of poverty—increasing benefits to the poor results in a greater reduction in the depth of poverty than expanding participation rates, at a similar cost, among poor households.
FANRR33 24 pp September 3, 2003
Food Stamp Caseloads Over the Business Cycle: This is an "ERS Elsewhere" document highlighting an article in the Southern Economic Journal. This study examines the effect of the business cycle on food stamps in the era of welfare reform.
EEJS0302 June 17, 2003
Food Stamp Certification Periods and Payment Accuracy: State Experience During 1997-2001: Quality control (QC) reviews of Food Stamp Program (FSP) cases show that error rates across States range from less than 5 percent to more than 25 percent when both overpayment and underpayment error are combined. This study uses QC data for 1997-2001 and a Markov probability framework to characterize year-to-year national and State error rates into variations due to errors occurring with first-month cases (those approved at initial certification); ongoing cases (those subject to the interim action process); and expiring cases (those subject to the recertification process). This information can be used in planning corrective actions by focusing attention on phases of the administrative process that are more responsible for errors. This study also explores the effect on payment accuracy and FSP participation of more frequent recertification of food stamp cases. A motivating concern is that the use of short certification periods (3 months or less) as a strategy to reduce case error may unintentionally reduce program participation.
04012 210 pp November 18, 2004
Food Stamp Leavers in Illinois - How Are They Doing Two Years Later? Final Report: This study examined the situation of food stamp recipients in Illinois who left the Food Stamp Program in 1997. About half of all leavers were employed in any given month after exiting the program and many worked in low-wage jobs. Nearly half of all leavers returned to the program, and more than half had incomes below the poverty level. One-quarter of food stamp leavers reported having fair health, and 13 percent reported poor health and other health problems. One quarter of food stamp leavers was food insecure. Food insecurity was higher among able-bodied adults without dependents than among other groups of leavers. Nearly 60 percent of all food stamp leavers experienced one or more serious hardships (extreme poverty, food insecurity, treatment for substance abuse, serious illness, and health problems but no health insurance).
ERSEFANNR01002 March 5, 2001
Food Stamp Leavers Research Study—Study of ABAWDs Leaving the Food Stamp Program in South Carolina: Final Report: This report presents the findings of a study of able-bodied adults without dependents (ABAWDs) in South Carolina who left the Food Stamp Program (FSP) between October 1998 and March 2000. Under 1996 welfare reform legislation, ABAWDs are limited to 3 months of food stamp benefits in a 36-month period unless they work or participate in an approved work or training program. Survey data collected 12 months after they left the FSP showed that about 72 percent of ABAWD leavers were either working or living with an employed adult. Of those who were unemployed at the time of the survey, about half had worked in the past year. About half were below the poverty line, and two-thirds appeared, based on income, to still be eligible for food stamps. Forty percent were food insecure and 23 percent food insecure with hunger evident. Outcomes for ABAWDs who left the FSP in counties exempted from the ABAWD work requirements and time limits were similar to outcomes of ABAWDS leaving the program in nonexempt counties.
More findings from the South Carolina study are available online in Food Stamp Leavers Research Study—Study of Nonwelfare Families Leaving the Food Stamp Program in South Carolina: Final Report.

03-002 152 pp March 6, 2003
Food Stamp Leavers Research Study—Study of Nonwelfare Families Leaving the Food Stamp Program in South Carolina: Final Report: This report presents the results of a study of about 900 nonwelfare families who left the Food Stamp Program (FSP) in South Carolina between October 1998 and March 2000. Nonwelfare families were defined as families who did not receive any benefits under the Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) program in the 12 months before leaving the FSP. The families were surveyed about 12 months after they left the FSP. The study results show that more than 80 percent of the respondents who were still off of food stamps were either working or living with an employed adult. Employment rates were much higher for Blacks than for Whites. More than 80 percent of the respondents who were working and still off of food stamps were working at least 30 hours per week. Among the unemployed who were still off food stamps, the most common reason for not working was the health condition of the respondent. Many respondents reported an increase in minor hardships since leaving the FSP but a few reported more serious hardships.
More findings from the South Carolina study are available online in Food Stamp Leavers Research Study—Study of ABAWDs Leaving the Food Stamp Program in South Carolina: Final Report.

03-003 161 pp March 6, 2003
Food Stamp Program Access Study: The plummeting food stamp caseload of the late 1990s fixed policymakers’ and analysts’ attention on the policies and practices of local food stamp offices as possible barriers to participation. With funding from USDA’s Economic Research Service, Abt Associates Inc. and Health Systems Research, Inc., examined the extent to which local office policies and practices affect households’ decisions to apply for food stamps and to continue participating once they are approved for food stamp benefits. This set of reports presents the results of the study.
03013 November 22, 2004
Food Stamp Program Access Study: Eligible Nonparticipants: Many food stamp-eligible nonparticipants are aware of the Food Stamp Program (FSP) and how to apply but do not realize that they are eligible. Nearly all eligible nonparticipating households surveyed in 2000 and 2001 knew of the FSP, but less than half thought they were eligible. Most nonparticipant households said that they would apply for food stamp benefits if they were sure they were eligible. Nonetheless, 27 percent would never apply. The main reason for not applying was a desire for personal independence. Some eligible nonparticipants were interested enough in receiving benefits to contact the food stamp office but did not get enough information or support to become participants. This report was produced as part of the Food Stamp Program Access Study, which is examining local food stamp office policies and practices as possible barriers to participation. The report focuses on one group of eligible households, those who are not participating in the FSP. As a group, these households generally have higher incomes and earnings and are more food secure than participants.
03013-2 113 pp May 12, 2004
Food Stamp Program Access Study: Final Report: The Food Stamp Program Access Study was motivated by a desire to learn whether and how the administrative policies and practices of local food stamp offices influence the chances of eligible households participating in the program. This report examines the participation decisions of potentially eligible households, together with the local office policies and practices that may enhance or inhibit program access. The findings indicate that many households with no recent contact with the FSP would apply for benefits if they believed themselves to be eligible. In addition, outreach activities are effective in communicating eligibility to nonparticipating households. The processes of application and recertification—and to a lesser extent, complying with ongoing program requirements—are hurdles that a sizable number of apparently eligible households fail to surmount. When surveyed, applicants and program dropouts cited various procedural obstacles as factors in their decision not to participate. The econometric analysis also identifies a number of office practices that vary across offices and appear to be significant in participation decisions.
03013-3 482 pp November 22, 2004
The Food Stamp Program and Food Insufficiency: Food stamp participants have higher food insufficiency rates than eligible non-participants, even after controlling for other factors. Given the Food Stamp Program's prominent role in the alleviation of hunger, this is a counterintuitive result. We conjecture that these higher rates are due to adverse selection insofar as households more likely to be food insufficient are also more likely to receive food stamps. We establish a theoretical framework to address this adverse selection. Using a simultaneous equation model with two probits, we show that once one controls for this adverse selection, food stamp recipients have the same probability of food insufficiency as non-recipients.
eejs0202 January 1, 2002
Food Stamp Program Certification Costs and Errors, 1989-2005: Final Report: Preventing and detecting certification errors in the Food Stamp Program (FSP) is a major policy concern. In 2005, the cost of overpayments was $1.29 billion, about 4.5 percent of the $28.6 billion in benefits issued. This report examines the State-level relationships between FSP certification error rates and certification expenditures, program policies, caseload characteristics, and economic conditions. The results show that, during the study period of 1989-2005, a 10-percent increase in certification “effort”—about $35 per participating household—would reduce an index of certification errors by 2 percent (0.3 percentage points out of a mean of 15.1 percent). The effect of certification effort was significantly smaller between 1997 and 2002, when States were implementing welfare reform. Key simplification policies authorized by the 2002 Farm Bill were estimated to jointly reduce the error index by 4.4 percentage points.
Disclaimer: This study was conducted by Abt Associates Inc. under Research Agreement No. 59-5000-6-0078 with the Economic Research Service. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of ERS or USDA.

CCR-45 118 pp June 20, 2008
Food Stamp Program Costs and Error Rates, 1989-2001: Evidence is strong that, beginning in 1995, an increase in reported certification-related costs per Food Stamp Program (FSP) household contributed to reduced error rates. This report presents the results of a study of trends in FSP administrative costs and errors from 1989 to 2001. It describes the trends and composition of FSP administrative costs. It also presents a multivariate regression analysis of the relationship of reported certification costs to FSP error rates (including overpayments, underpayments, and incorrect eligibility decisions). The report presents alternative models that relate a composite case error rate to certification effort per FSP household, caseload characteristics, the implementation of welfare reform, and short certification periods. The results imply that, in the period after the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, States on average had to spend more effort on certification-related activities than in previous years to achieve a given level of accuracy. The models predict that, if a State's FSP certification budget is fixed and the number of FSP households increases, the effort per FSP household will fall and error rates will rise, all other things equal.
CCR-15 127 pp January 31, 2006
Food Stamp Program Entry and Exit: An Analysis of Participation Trends in the 1990s: This study examines the degree to which changes in entry and exit patterns into and out of the Food Stamp Program (FSP) contributed to the FSP caseload growth of the early 1990s and to the decline of the late 1990s. A rise in the FSP entry rate was the driving force behind caseload growth in the early 1990s. However, individuals tended to stay longer in the FSP during this period than at other points of the 1990s, which also contributed to the growth. Caseload decline of the late 1990s was driven predominantly by shorter participation length, although lower entry rates also contributed. The entry rate for single mothers remained relatively constant over the 1990s, but participation length declined in the late 1990s. Despite eligibility restrictions in the late 1990s, the entry rate for noncitizens also remained fairly constant. While the entry rate for able-bodied adults fell after time limits were imposed in the mid-1990s, their participation length appeared unaffected by these limits, which may reflect the tendency for able-bodied adults to have short participation spells even without time limits. Among all new entrants in the FSP in the 1990s, more than half exited the program within 8 months and two-thirds exited within 1 year. Among individuals participating in the FSP for longer than 1 year, the typical participation length declined over the 1990s.
CCR-8 101 pp July 28, 2005
The Food Stamp Program in An Era of Welfare Reform: Electronic Benefits and Changing Sources of Cash Income: Data from the first evaluation of a statewide Electronic Benefits Transfer (EBT) program are used to investigate the distinct roles played by food stamp benefits and cash income in the household budget of food stamp recipients at different times of the month.The EBT system replaces traditional food stamp coupons and welfare checks with plastic debit cards.
eejs0206 February 2, 2002
Food Stamp Program—Elderly Nutrition Demonstrations: Interim Report on Elderly Participation Patterns: To raise participation in the Food Stamp Program (FSP) by low-income, elderly individuals, USDA implemented the Elderly Nutrition Demonstration in six States (Arizona, Connecticut, Florida, Maine, Michigan, and North Carolina) in 2002. Each of the demonstrations is organized around one of three strategies to increase participation: simplifying the eligibility requirements for elderly individuals that apply for food stamps, directly assisting them with completing the application process, or offering them the option of receiving packages of commodities each month instead of getting benefits through an electronic benefits transfer card. Preliminary analysis indicates that FSP participation by the elderly rose substantially after the demonstrations started. In Arizona, Florida, Maine, and North Carolina, participation grew significantly more in demonstration counties than in nondemonstration counties. In Connecticut and Michigan, the more modest growth rates in the demonstration counties were similar to the rates in the rest of the State. The analysis also provides some evidence that the demonstrations attract elderly individuals eligible for relatively low FSP benefits, particularly in Maine and North Carolina, where a large number of individuals eligible for a $10 benefit are applying.
EFAN04009 39 pp June 29, 2004
The Food Stamp Program's Elderly Nutrition Pilot Demonstration: Final Evaluation Design: Low participation rates in the Food Stamp Program (FSP) by poor elderly individuals have been a persistent problem. Historically, no more than one-third of eligible elderly have participated in the FSP—a participation rate far lower than that of any other major demographic group. To address the low participation rates among the elderly, USDA is funding the Elderly Nutrition Demonstrations—six separate pilot programs that are testing three alternative ways to increase elderly participation in the FSP. This report discusses the logistical considerations for evaluating the impacts of the six demonstrations. It presents an overview of the evaluation design, discusses alternative approaches for data collection, presents a schedule for the evaluation, and presents the expected costs of the evaluation.
CCR-5-2 81 pp March 28, 2005
The Food Stamp Program's Elderly Nutrition Pilot Demonstration: Initial Evaluation Design: Low participation rates in the Food Stamp Program (FSP) by poor elderly individuals have been a persistent problem. Historically, no more than one-third of eligible elderly have participated in the FSP—a participation rate far lower than that of any other major demographic group. To address the low participation rates among the elderly, USDA is funding the Elderly Nutrition Demonstrations—six separate pilot programs that are testing three alternative ways to increase elderly participation in the FSP. This report presents the design for evaluating the six demonstrations. The design includes an impact analysis to evaluate the effects of the demonstrations on FSP participation, average benefit levels, client satisfaction, and ongoing administrative costs. The design also includes a process analysis to describe the implementation process and to identify the effects of the demonstrations on stakeholders.
CCR-5-1 209 pp March 28, 2005
Food Stamps and Obesity: What Do We Know?: Results from reviewed studies indicate that for most participants in the Food Stamp Program—children, nonelderly men, and the elderly—use of food stamp benefits does not result in an increase in either Body Mass Index (BMI) or the likelihood of being overweight or obese. However, for nonelderly women, who account for 28 percent of the food stamp caseload, some evidence suggests that participation in the Food Stamp Program may increase BMI and the probability of obesity. Different results for age and sex subgroups remain unexplained. Further, because food stamp benefits are issued to households, not individuals, mixed results across age and sex subgroups make it difficult to target policy alternatives to address potential weight gain among some participants while not affecting others in the household.
EIB-34 37 pp March 21, 2008
Food Stamps and Obesity: Ironic Twist or Complex Puzzle?: The Food Stamp Program was designed to provide a nutritional safety net for low-income households while boosting demand for domestic agricultural products. As the major nutrition problems facing the U.S. population have shifted from too little intake to overconsumption and obesity, some have questioned whether food stamps encourage participants to eat too much. Though such a connection appeared to exist in the late 1980s and early 1990s, it does not appear to hold today.
February 1, 2006
Food Stamps and Obesity: What We Know and What It Means: Critics of the Food Stamp Program point to higher rates of obesity among some low-income populations and question whether the program may have been too successful in boosting food consumption. A review by ERS of the effects of food stamp participation on body weight found that participation does not increase the likelihood of being overweight or obese for men or children. Women are the only group for which multiple studies show a potential link between food stamp participation and an increase in obesity and body weight, although this effect appears to be small.
AER June 2, 2008
Food Traceability: One Ingredient in a Safe and Efficient Food Supply: This investigation into the traceability baseline in the United States finds that private sector food firms have developed a substantial capacity to trace.
April 1, 2004
Food Trade Balances and Unit Values: What Can They Reveal About Price Competition?: This paper examines the effectiveness of unit values as proxies for international prices in trade markets. The results indicates that often unit values do not predict the expected directions of trade flows.
EEJS0224 September 1, 2002
The Forces Shaping World Cotton Consumption After the Multifiber Arrangement: The phaseout of the Multifiber Arrangement (MFA) and other forces are reshaping world textile and cotton markets. The elimination of the MFA is helping reduce clothing prices in the United States and the EU and effecting a shift in industrial demand for cotton to China, India, and Pakistan. At the same time, world cotton consumption has accelerated along with economic growth since 1999, especially in developing Asia, where an emerging consumer society is driving increases in household consumption of clothing and other cotton products. In the long run, income growth and technical change have more of an effect on world cotton consumption than the elimination of the MFA.
ERSCWS-05C-01 30 pp April 15, 2005
Forecasting Consumer Price Indexes for Food: A Demand Model Approach: Forecasting food prices is an important component of the U.S. Department of Agriculture's short-term outlook and long-term baseline forecasting activities. A food price-forecasting model is developed by applying an inverse demand system, in which prices are functions of quantities of food use and income. Therefore, these quantity and income variables can be used as explanatory variables for food price changes. The empirical model provides an effective instrument for forecasting consumer price indexes of 16 food categories. ERS AutoFAX summary document # 01733. Contact: khuang@ers.usda.gov.
ERSTB1883 24 pp March 1, 2000
Forecasting Farm Income: Documenting USDA’s Forecast Model: The Economic Research Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) develops and publishes estimates and forecasts of three primary measures of income and returns for the U.S. farm economy: (1) net value added, or total value of the farm sector’s production of goods and services less purchases of inputs and services from other sectors of the economy; (2) net farm income, the portion of net value added earned by farm operators and others who share the risks of production, and (3) net cash income, the cash earned from sales of production and conversion of assets into cash. The USDA short-term income forecast model generates forecasts of receipts for individual commodities, Government payments for each program commodity or activity, and expenses for inputs such as fertilizer, fuel, feed, rent, and labor. The report describes the components and equations in the model, showing how components can be recombined to produce the three main measures of income.
TB-1924 137 pp February 12, 2009
Forecasting Feed Grain Prices in a Changing Environment: Structural change has been occurring throughout the feed grains sector and has affected commodity markets and price forecasting relationships. Structural changes that have affected feed grains stem from government policy such as the 1996 Farm Act, international trade agreements such as NAFTA, and changing consumer preferences. A statistical test of structural change is provided along with price forecasting models for corn, sorghum, barley, and oats. The models provide a framework to forecast season-average, farm-level prices and gauge the consistency of supply, demand, and price forecasts.
ERSFDS-04F-01 18 pp July 14, 2004
Forecasting the Counter-Cyclical Payment Rate for U.S. Corn: An Application of the Futures Price Forecasting Model: The 2002 Farm Act provides for counter-cyclical payments when prices are below specified levels. Producers and policy analysts have a need to forecast counter-cyclical payments to plan for these program benefits/outlays. A futures price forecasting model provides forecasts of the counter-cyclical payment rate for corn in conjunction with forecasts for the season-average price received.
ERSFDS05a01 26 pp January 28, 2005
Former Soviet Union Region To Play Larger Role in Meeting World Wheat Needs: This report examines how and why during the 2000s, the main countries of the former Soviet Union – Russia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan – have become large wheat exporters. These countries could soon replace the United States as the world’s largest wheat exporting region, as U.S. wheat production and exports have been leveling off.
AER-Vol. 8 issue 2 8 May 17, 2010
Forward Contracting of Inputs: A Farm-Level Analysis: Forward contracting of factors of production is a growing activity between the suppliers of inputs and the farmers who use them. Forward contracting of inputs also guarantees farmers an assured supply of inputs at a specified price. Farmers choose to forward contract their factors of production for two basic reasons; first, getting price discounts and locking in a certain price for the inputs. This reduces the input price risk. Second, contracting of inputs ensures quality and timeliness of input deliveries.
EEJS0010 November 1, 1999
A Framework for Analyzing Technical Trade Barriers in Agricultural Markets: Technical trade barriers are increasingly important in the international trade of agricultural products. Designing technical trade measures that can satisfy the growing demand for food safety, product differentiation, environmental amenities, and product information at the lowest cost to the consumer and to the international trading system requires an understanding of the complex economics of regulatory import barriers. This report proposes a definition and classification scheme to frame discussion and evaluation of such measures. Open-economy models that complement the classification scheme are developed graphically to highlight the basic elements that affect the economic impacts of changes in technical trade barriers.
ERSTB1876 52 pp March 1, 1999
Free Trade in the Americas International Agriculture and Trade Report: A Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) is one of several trade agreements that the United States is encouraging and actively pursuing. An FTAA that eliminates tariffs among the 34 Western Hemisphere countries would benefit the U.S. agricultural sector--and the U.S. economy as a whole--if the United States were part of the arrangement. If the other Western Hemisphere countries formed an FTAA without the United States, the impact on the U.S. agricultural sector and the general U.S. economy would be slightly negative. In either case, the expected economic impact of an FTAA on the United States would be small in the short run (3-5 years), primarily because tariffs in the region are already relatively low and are being further reduced through bilateral and multilateral agreements.
WRS-981 November 1, 1998
Frequency and Duration of Food Insecurity and Hunger in U.S. Households: This is the first nationally representative study of the extent to which food insecurity and hunger are frequent, recurring, or occasional in U.S. households that experience them. The findings add credibility to food security statistics based on the U.S. food security scale.
EEJS0222 September 1, 2002
From Farmers to Consumers: Vertical Coordination in the Food Industry: Vertical coordination refers to the allocation of resources across successive stages of a food supply system. Methods of coordination include open production, contract production, and vertical integration. This report examines the various forms of vertical coordination, reviews the recent history of vertical coordination, and looks at its future, including its implications for market control and environmental protection.
ERSAIB720 16 pp June 1, 1996
From Supply Push to Demand Pull: Agribusiness Strategies for Today's Consumers: Today many consumers demand and have available a wide assortment of prepared foods, including complete meals purchased at restaurants and supermarket deli counters. Changing U.S. demographics - more mature consumers, greater ethnic diversity, and larger incomes - are driving changes in consumer demand for food products. Today’s time-pressed consumer is using his or her higher level of income to purchase more convenience, while looking for quality, variety, and value.
Changing consumer preferences, along with technological advances and other changes in the economy, offer agribusiness companies new opportunities. Understanding the diverse preferences of consumers moves to the forefront and "pulls" products through the supply chain. Communicating consumer preferences back through the food system to prompt the needed adjustments in a cost-effective manner becomes the challenge.
November 7, 2003
Fruit and Tree Nuts Outlook: Provides current intelligence and forecasts the effects of changing conditions in the U.S. fruit and tree nuts sector. Topics include production, consumption, shipments, prices received, and more.
Released by 4 p.m. ET. Subscribe to the free electronic version to receive timely notification of newsletter (and yearbook) availability. Users who subscribe to this newsletter will also receive articles on timely topics via e-mail notification. Printed copies can be purchased from the National Technical Information Service (NTIS) by calling 1-800-999-6779 (specify SUB-FTS-4036).

FTS November 29, 2011
Fruit and Tree Nuts Yearbook: Contains data important to the fruit and tree nuts industry.
FTS October 30, 2008
Fruit and Tree Nuts Yearbook summary: Summary release. Contains data important to the fruit and tree nuts industry.
October 26, 2006
Fruit and Vegetable Backgrounder: This report describes the economic characteristics of the U.S. fruit and vegetable industry, providing supply, demand, and policy background for an industry that accounts for nearly a third of U.S. crop cash receipts and a fifth of U.S. agricultural exports.
VGS-31301 56pp April 17, 2006
Fruit and Vegetable Consumption by Low-Income Americans: Would a Price Reduction Make a Difference?: Americans’ diets, particularly those of low-income households, fall short of Government recommendations in the quantity of fruits and vegetables consumed. Some proposals suggest that a price subsidy for those products would encourage low-income Americans to consume more of them. This study estimated that a 10-percent subsidy would encourage low-income Americans to increase their consumption of fruits by 2.1-5.2 percent and vegetables by 2.1-4.9 percent. The annual cost of such a subsidy for low-income Americans would be about $310 million for fruits and $270 million for vegetables. And most would still not meet Federal dietary recommendations.
ERR-70 23 pp January 9, 2009
Fruit and Vegetable Consumption: Looking Ahead to 2020: Rising income, higher educational attainment, improved diet and health knowledge, more frequent eating out, and a growing population that will become older and more diverse in race and ethnicity are all shaping U.S. agricultural consumption. These effects are analyzed using data from the 1994-96 and 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals. We then project the consumption of 25 food groups and 22 commodity groups, including various fruit and vegetable groups, to 2020.
ERSAIB792-7 4 pp November 16, 2004
Fruit and Vegetable Planting Restrictions: Analyzing the Processing Cucumber Market: This report highlights the anticipated consequences of the 2008 Farm Act’s Planting Transferability Pilot Program (PTPP) on processing (pickling) cucumber plantings. PTPP allows program crop growers in seven Upper Midwestern States to reduce base acres and plant select vegetables for processing on those acres without reducing Government payments on their remaining base acres.
VGS-342-02 23 pp February 10, 2011
Fruit Policies in Japan: This report reviews Japanese government programs to support domestic fruit production and how these policies affect fruit consumption in one of the largest markets for U.S. fruits. Production targets and subsidies aim to bolster the supply of domestic fruit, while phytosanitary measures and tariffs limit imports.
FTS-341-01 23 pp April 21, 2010
Fuel for Food: Energy Use in the U.S. Food System: In 2007, the U.S. food system accounted for almost 16 percent of the Nation’s energy budget, up from 14 percent in 2002. Greater reliance on energy-intensive technologies throughout the food system, along with population growth and higher per capita food expenditures, boosted food-related energy consumption
AER August 19, 2010
Full Throttle U.S. Ethanol Expansion Faces Challenges: Constraints to future growth of the ethanol industry will present challenges to meeting the ambitious mandates for expanded biofuel use set forth in the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007. Challenges exist on both the supply and demand sides of the market.
AER-Volume 7, No. 3 August 17, 2009
The Future of Biofuels: A Global Perspective: Global biofuel production tripled between 2000 and 2007, but still accounts for less than 3 percent of global transportation fuel supply. Increased demand for biofuels has contributed to higher world food and feed prices. Biofuels will likely be part of a portfolio of solutions to high energy prices that includes conservation, more efficient energy use, and use of other alternative fuels.
AER November 1, 2007
The Future of China's Grain Market: By the year 2005, China will become a net importer of 32 million tons of grain. As a major exporter, U.S. agriculture has a vital interest in the development of China's grain import demand. This paper examines and presents USDA's views on the future grain demand and supply situation in China to the year 2005.
ERSAIB730 24 pp October 1, 1996

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